Principles of Anatomy & Physiology.

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
About the Authors
How to Use this Resource
1 An introduction to the human body
	1.1 Anatomy and physiology defined
	1.2 Levels of structural organisation and body systems
	1.3 Characteristics of the living human organism
		Basic life processes
	1.4 Homeostasis
		Homeostasis and body fluids
		Control of homeostasis
		Homeostatic imbalances
	1.5 Basic anatomical terminology
		Body positions
		Regional names
		Directional terms
		Planes and sections
		Body cavities
		Abdominopelvic regions and quadrants
	1.6 Medical imaging
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
2 The chemical level of organisation
	2.1 How matter is organised
		Chemical elements
		Structure of atoms
		Atomic number and mass number
		Atomic mass
		Ions, molecules, and compounds
	2.2 Chemical bonds
		Ionic bonds
		Covalent bonds
		Hydrogen bonds
	2.3 Chemical reactions
		Forms of energy and chemical reactions
		Energy transfer in chemical reactions
		Types of chemical reactions
	2.4 Inorganic compounds and solutions
		Water
		Solutions, colloids, and suspensions
		Inorganic acids, bases, and salts
		Acid–base balance: the concept of pH
		Maintaining pH: buffer systems
	2.5 Organic compounds
		Carbon and its functional groups
		Carbohydrates
		Lipids
		Proteins
		Nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
		Adenosine triphosphate
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
3 The cellular level of organisation
	3.1 Parts of a cell
	3.2 The plasma membrane
		Structure of the plasma membrane
		Functions of membrane proteins
		Membrane fluidity
		Membrane permeability
		Gradients across the plasma membrane
	3.3 Transport across the plasma membrane
		Passive processes
		Active processes
	3.4 Cytoplasm
		Cytosol
		Organelles
	3.5 Nucleus
	3.6 Protein synthesis
		Transcription
		Translation
	3.7 Cell division
		Somatic cell division
		Control of cell destiny
		Reproductive cell division
	3.8 Cellular diversity
	3.9 Ageing and cells
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
4 The tissue level of organisation
	4.1 Types of tissues
	4.2 Cell junctions
		Tight junctions
		Adherens junctions
		Desmosomes
		Hemidesmosomes
		Gap junctions
	4.3 Comparison between epithelial and connective tissues
	4.4 Epithelial tissue
		Classification of epithelial tissue
		Covering and lining epithelium
		Glandular epithelium
	4.5 Connective tissue
		General features of connective tissue
		Connective tissue cells
		Connective tissue extracellular matrix
		Classification of connective tissue
		Embryonic connective tissue
		Mature connective tissue
	4.6 Membranes
		Epithelial membranes
		Synovial membranes
	4.7 Muscular tissue
	4.8 Nervous tissue
	4.9 Excitable cells
	4.10 Tissue repair: restoring homeostasis
	4.11 Ageing and tissues
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
5 The integumentary system
	5.1 Structure of the skin
		Epidermis
		Keratinisation and growth of the epidermis
		Dermis
		The structural basis of skin colour
		Tattooing and body piercing
	5.2 Accessory structures of the skin
		Hair
		Skin glands
		Nails
	5.3 Types of skin
	5.4 Functions of the skin
		Thermoregulation
		Blood reservoir
		Protection
		Cutaneous sensations
		Excretion and absorption
		Synthesis of vitamin D
	5.5 Maintaining homeostasis: skin wound healing
		Epidermal wound healing
		Deep wound healing
	5.6 Development of the integumentary system
	5.7 Ageing and the integumentary system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
6 The skeletal system: bone tissue
	6.1 Functions of bone and the skeletal system
	6.2 Structure of bone
	6.3 Histology of bone tissue
		Compact bone tissue
		Spongy bone tissue
	6.4 Blood and nerve supply of bone
	6.5 Bone formation
		Initial bone formation in an embryo and foetus
		Bone growth during infancy, childhood, and adolescence
		Remodelling of bone
		Factors affecting bone growth and bone remodelling
	6.6 Fracture and repair of bone
	6.7 Bone’s role in calcium homeostasis
	6.8 Exercise and bone tissue
	6.9 Ageing and bone tissue
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
7 The skeletal system: The axial skeleton
	7.1 Divisions of the skeletal system
	7.2 Types of bones
	7.3 Bone surface markings
	7.4 Skull
		General features and functions
		Nasal septum
		Orbits
		Foramina
		Unique features of the skull
	7.5 Hyoid bone
	7.6 Vertebral column
		Normal curves of the vertebral column
		Intervertebral discs
		Parts of a typical vertebra
		Regions of the vertebral column
		Age-related changes in the vertebral column
	7.7 Thorax
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
8 The skeletal system: The appendicular skeleton
	8.1 Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
	8.2 Upper limb (extremity)
	8.3 Pelvic (hip) girdle
	8.4 False and true pelves
	8.5 Comparison of female and male pelves
	8.6 Lower limb (extremity)
	8.7 Development of the skeletal system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
9 Joints
	9.1 Joint classifications
	9.2 Fibrous joints
		Sutures
		Syndesmoses
		Interosseous membranes
	9.3 Cartilaginous joints
		Synchondroses
		Symphyses
	9.4 Synovial joints
		Structure of synovial joints
		Nerve and blood supply
		Bursae and tendon sheaths
	9.5 Types of movements at synovial joints
		Gliding
		Angular movements
		Rotation
		Special movements
	9.6 Types of synovial joints
		Plane joints
		Hinge joints
		Pivot joints
		Condyloid joints
		Saddle joints
		Ball-and-socket joints
	9.7 Factors affecting contact and range of motion at synovial joints
	9.8 Selected joints of the body
	9.9 Ageing and joints
	9.10 Arthroplasty
		Hip replacements
		Knee replacements
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
10 Muscular tissue
	10.1 Overview of muscular tissue
		Types of muscular tissue
		Functions of muscular tissue
		Properties of muscular tissue
	10.2 Skeletal muscle tissue
		Connective tissue components
		Nerve and blood supply
		Microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle fibre
		Muscle proteins
	10.3 Contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscle fibres
		The sliding filament mechanism
		The neuromuscular  junction
	10.4 Muscle metabolism
		Production of atp in muscle fibres
		Muscle fatigue
		Oxygen consumption after exercise
	10.5 Control of muscle tension
		Motor units
		Twitch contraction
		Frequency of stimulation
		Motor unit recruitment
		Muscle tone
		Isotonic and isometric contractions
	10.6 Types of skeletal muscle fibres
		Slow oxidative fibres
		Fast oxidative–glycolytic fibres
		Fast glycolytic fibres
		Distribution and recruitment of different types of fibres
	10.7 Exercise and skeletal muscle tissue
		Effective stretching
		Strength training
	10.8 Cardiac muscle tissue
	10.9 Smooth muscle tissue
		Microscopic anatomy of smooth muscle
		Physiology of smooth muscle
	10.10 Regeneration of muscular tissue
	10.11 Development of muscle
	10.12 Ageing and muscular tissue
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
11 The muscular system
	11.1 How skeletal muscles produce movements
		Muscle attachment sites: origin and insertion
		Lever systems and leverage
		Effects of fascicle arrangement
		Coordination among muscles
	11.2 How skeletal muscles are named
	11.3 Principal skeletal muscles
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
12 Nervous tissue
	12.1 Overview of the nervous system
		Organisation of the nervous system
		Functions of the nervous system
	12.2 Histology of nervous tissue
		Neurons
		Neuroglia
		Myelination
		Collections of nervous tissue
	12.3 Electrical signals in neurons
		Ion channels
		Resting membrane potential
		Graded potentials
		Generation of action potentials
		Propagation of action potentials
		Encoding of stimulus intensity
		Comparison of electrical signals produced by excitable cells
	12.4 Signal transmission at synapses
		Electrical synapses
		Chemical synapses
		Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
		Structure of neurotransmitter receptors
		Removal of neurotransmitter
		Spatial and temporal summation of postsynaptic potentials
	12.5 Neurotransmitters
		Small-molecule neurotransmitters
		Neuropeptides
	12.6 Neural circuits
	12.7 Regeneration and repair of nervous tissue
		Neurogenesis in the CNS
		Damage and repair in the PNS
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
13 The spinal cord and spinal nerves
	13.1 Spinal cord anatomy
		Protective structures
		External anatomy of the spinal cord
		Internal anatomy of the spinal cord
	13.2 Spinal nerves
		Connective tissue coverings of spinal nerves
		Distribution of spinal nerves
		Dermatomes
	13.3 Spinal cord physiology
		Sensory and motor tracts
		Reflexes and reflex arcs
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
14 The brain and cranial nerves
	14.1 Brain organisation, protection, and blood supply
		Major parts of the brain
		Protective coverings of the brain
		Brain blood flow and the blood–brain barrier
	14.2 Cerebrospinal fluid
		Functions of CSF
		Formation of CSF in the ventricles
		Circulation of CSF
	14.3 The brain stem and reticular formation
		Medulla oblongata
		Pons
		Midbrain
		Reticular formation
	14.4 The cerebellum
	14.5 The diencephalon
		Thalamus
		Hypothalamus
		Epithalamus
		Circumventricular organs
	14.6 The cerebrum
		Cerebral cortex
		Lobes of the cerebrum
		Cerebral white matter
		Basal nuclei
		The limbic system
	14.7 Functional organisation of the cerebral cortex
		Sensory areas
		Motor areas
		Association areas
		Hemispheric lateralisation
		Brain waves
	14.8 Cranial nerves
	14.9 Development of the nervous system
	14.10 Ageing and the nervous system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
15 The autonomic nervous system
	15.1 Comparison of somatic and autonomic nervous systems
		Somatic nervous system
		Autonomic nervous system
		Comparison of somatic and autonomic motor neurons
	15.2 Anatomy of autonomic motor pathways
		Anatomical components
		Structure of the sympathetic division
		Structure of the parasympathetic division
		Structure of the enteric division
	15.3 Ans neurotransmitters and receptors
		Cholinergic neurons and receptors
		Adrenergic neurons and receptors
		Receptor agonists and antagonists
	15.4 Physiology of the ANS
		Autonomic tone
		Sympathetic responses
		Parasympathetic responses
	15.5 Integration and control of autonomic functions
		Autonomic reflexes
		Autonomic control by higher centres
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
16 Sensory, motor, and integrative systems
	16.1 Sensation
		Sensory modalities
		The process of sensation
		Sensory receptors
	16.2 Somatic sensations
		Tactile sensations
		Thermal sensations
		Pain sensations
		Proprioceptive sensations
	16.3 Somatic sensory pathways
		Posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway to the cortex
		Anterolateral pathway to the cortex
		Trigeminothalamic pathway to the cortex
		Mapping the primary somatosensory area
		Somatic sensory pathways to the cerebellum
	16.4 Somatic motor pathways
		Organisation of upper motor neuron pathways
		Roles of the basal nuclei
		Modulation of movement by the cerebellum
	16.5 Integrative functions of the cerebrum
		Wakefulness and sleep
		Learning and memory
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
17 The special senses
	17.1 Olfaction: sense of smell
		Anatomy of olfactory receptors
		Physiology of olfaction
		Odour thresholds and adaptation
		The olfactory pathway
	17.2 Gustation: sense of taste
		Anatomy of taste buds and papillae
		Physiology of gustation
		Taste thresholds and adaptation
		The gustatory pathway
	17.3 Vision
		Electromagnetic radiation
		Accessory structures of the eye
		Anatomy of the eyeball
		Image formation
		Convergence
		Physiology of vision
		The visual pathway
	17.4 Hearing and equilibrium
		Anatomy of the ear
		The nature of sound waves
		Physiology of hearing
		The auditory pathway
		Physiology of equilibrium
		Equilibrium pathways
	17.5 Development of the eyes and ears
		Eyes
		Ears
	17.6 Ageing and the special senses
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
18 The endocrine system
	18.1 Comparison of control by the nervous and endocrine systems
	18.2 Endocrine glands
	18.3 Hormone activity
		The role of hormone receptors
		Circulating and local hormones
		Chemical classes of hormones
		Hormone transport in the blood
	18.4 Mechanisms of hormone action
		Action of lipid-soluble hormones
		Action of water-soluble hormones
		Hormone interactions
	18.5 Control of hormone secretion
	18.6 Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
		Anterior pituitary
		Posterior pituitary
	18.7 Thyroid gland
		Formation, storage, and release of thyroid hormones
		Actions of thyroid hormones
		Control of thyroid hormone secretion
		Calcitonin
	18.8 Parathyroid glands
		Parathyroid hormone
		Control of secretion of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone
	18.9 Adrenal glands
		Adrenal cortex
		Adrenal medulla
	18.10 Pancreatic islets
		Cell types in the pancreatic islets
		Control of secretion of glucagon and insulin
	18.11 Ovaries and testes
	18.12 Pineal gland and thymus
	18.13 Other endocrine tissues and organs, eicosanoids, and growth factors
		Hormones from other endocrine tissues and organs
		Eicosanoids
		Growth factors
	18.14 The stress response
		The fight-or-flight response
		The resistance reaction
		Exhaustion
		Stress and disease
	18.15 Development of the endocrine system
	18.16 Ageing and the endocrine system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
19 The cardiovascular system: The blood
	19.1 Functions and properties of blood
		Functions of blood
		Physical characteristics of blood
		Components of blood
	19.2 Formation of blood cells
	19.3 Red blood cells
		RBC anatomy
		RBC physiology
		RBC life cycle
		Erythropoiesis: production of RBCs
	19.4 White blood cells
		Types of white blood cells
		Functions of white blood cells
	19.5 Platelets
	19.6 Stem cell transplants from bone marrow and cord blood
	19.7 Haemostasis
		Vascular spasm
		Platelet plug formation
		Blood clotting
		Role of vitamin K in clotting
		Homeostatic control mechanisms
		Intravascular clotting
	19.8 Blood groups and blood types
		ABO blood group
		Transfusions
		Rh blood group
		Typing and cross-matching blood for transfusion
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
20 The cardiovascular system: The heart
	20.1 Anatomy of the heart
		Location of the heart
		Pericardium
		Layers of the heart wall
		Chambers of the heart
		Myocardial thickness and function
		Fibrous skeleton of the heart
	20.2 Heart valves and circulation of blood
		Operation of the atrioventricular valves
		Operation of the semilunar valves
		Systemic and pulmonary circulations
		Coronary circulation
	20.3 Cardiac muscle tissue and the cardiac conduction system
		Histology of cardiac muscle tissue
		Autorhythmic fibres: the conduction system
		Action potential and contraction of contractile fibres
		ATP production in cardiac muscle
		Electrocardiogram
		Correlation of ECG waves with atrial and ventricular systole
	20.4 The cardiac cycle
		Pressure and volume changes during the cardiac cycle
		Heart sounds
	20.5 Cardiac output
		Regulation of stroke volume
		Regulation of heart rate
	20.6 Exercise and the heart
	20.7 Help for failing hearts
	20.8 Development of the heart
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
21 The cardiovascular system: blood vessels and haemodynamics
	21.1 Structure and function of blood vessels
		Basic structure of a blood vessel
		Arteries
		Anastomoses
		Arterioles
		Capillaries
		Venules
		Veins
		Blood distribution
	21.2 Capillary exchange
		Diffusion
		Transcytosis
		Bulk flow: filtration and reabsorption
	21.3 Haemodynamics: factors affecting blood flow
		Blood pressure
		Vascular resistance
		Venous return
		Velocity of blood flow
	21.4 Control of blood pressure and blood flow
		Role of the cardiovascular centre
		Neural regulation of blood pressure
		Hormonal regulation of blood pressure
		Autoregulation of blood flow
	21.5 Checking circulation
		Pulse
		Measuring blood pressure
	21.6 Shock and homeostasis
		Types of shock
		Homeostatic responses to shock
		Signs and symptoms of shock
	21.7 Circulatory routes
		The systemic circulation
		The hepatic portal circulation
		The pulmonary circulation
		The foetal circulation
	21.8 Development of blood vessels and blood
	21.9 Ageing and the cardiovascular system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
22 The lymphatic system and immunity
	22.1 Lymphatic system structure and function
		Functions of the lymphatic system
		Lymphatic vessels and lymph circulation
		Lymphatic organs and tissues
	22.2 Development of lymphatic tissues
	22.3 Innate immunity
		First line of defence: skin and mucous membranes
		Second line of defence: internal defences
	22.4 Adaptive immunity
		Maturation of t cells and B cells
		Types of adaptive immunity
		Clonal selection: the principle
		Antigens and antigen receptors
		Major histocompatibility complex antigens
		Pathways of antigen processing
		Cytokines
	22.5 Cell-mediated immunity
		Activation of t cells
		Activation and clonal selection of helper t cells
		Activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic t cells
		Elimination of invaders
		Immunological surveillance
	22.6 Antibody-mediated immunity
		Activation and clonal selection of B cells
		Antibodies
		Immunological memory
	22.7 Self-recognition and self-tolerance
	22.8 Stress and immunity
	22.9 Ageing and the immune system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
23 The respiratory system
	23.1 Respiratory system anatomy
		Nose
		Pharynx
		Larynx
		The structures of voice production
		Trachea
		Bronchi
		Lungs
		Patency of the respiratory system
	23.2 Pulmonary ventilation
		Pressure changes during pulmonary ventilation
		Other factors affecting pulmonary ventilation
		Breathing patterns and modified breathing movements
	23.3 Lung volumes and capacities
	23.4 Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
		Gas laws: dalton’s law and Henry’s law
		External and internal respiration
	23.5 Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
		Oxygen transport
		Carbon dioxide transport
		Summary of gas exchange and transport in lungs and tissues
	23.6 Control of breathing
		Respiratory centre
		Regulation of the respiratory centre
	23.7 Exercise and the respiratory system
	23.8 Development of the respiratory system
	23.9 Ageing and the respiratory system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
24 The digestive system
	24.1 Overview of the digestive system
	24.2 Layers of the GI tract
		Mucosa
		Submucosa
		Muscularis
		Serosa
	24.3 Neural innervation of the GI tract
		Enteric nervous system
		Autonomic nervous system
		Gastrointestinal reflex pathways
	24.4 Peritoneum
	24.5 Mouth
		Salivary glands
		Tongue
		Teeth
		Mechanical and chemical digestion in the mouth
	24.6 Pharynx
	24.7 Oesophagus
		Histology of the oesophagus
		Physiology of the oesophagus
	24.8 Deglutition
	24.9 Stomach
		Anatomy of the stomach
		Histology of the stomach
		Mechanical and chemical digestion in the stomach
	24.10 Pancreas
		Anatomy of the pancreas
		Histology of the pancreas
		Composition and functions of pancreatic juice
	24.11 Liver and gall bladder
		Anatomy of the liver and gall bladder
		Histology of the liver and gall bladder
		Blood supply of the liver
		Functions of the liver and gall bladder
	24.12 Small intestine
		Anatomy of the small intestine
		Histology of the small intestine
		Role of intestinal juice and brush-border enzymes
		Mechanical digestion in the small intestine
		Chemical digestion in the small intestine
		Absorption in the small intestine
	24.13 Large intestine
		Anatomy of the large intestine
		Histology of the large intestine
		Mechanical digestion in the large intestine
		Chemical digestion in the large intestine
		Absorption and faeces formation in the large intestine
		The defecation reflex
	24.14 Phases of digestion
		Cephalic phase
		Gastric phase
		Intestinal phase
		Other hormones of the digestive system
	24.15 Development of the digestive system
	24.16 Ageing and the digestive system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
25 Metabolism and nutrition
	25.1 Metabolic reactions
		Coupling of catabolism and anabolism by ATP
	25.2 Energy transfer
		Oxidation–reduction reactions
		Mechanisms of ATP generation
	25.3 Carbohydrate metabolism
		The fate of glucose
		Glucose movement into cells
		Glucose catabolism
		Glucose anabolism
	25.4 Lipid metabolism
		Transport of lipids by lipoproteins
		Sources and significance of blood cholesterol
		The fate of lipids
		Triglyceride storage
		Lipid catabolism: lipolysis
		Lipid anabolism: lipogenesis
	25.5 Protein metabolism
		The fate of proteins
		Protein catabolism
		Protein anabolism
	25.6 Key molecules at metabolic crossroads
		The role of glucose 6-phosphate
		The role of pyruvic acid
		The role of acetyl coenzyme A
	25.7 Metabolic adaptations
		Metabolism during the absorptive state
		Metabolism during the postabsorptive state
		Metabolism during fasting and starvation
	25.8 Heat and energy balance
		Metabolic rate
		Body temperature homeostasis
		Energy homeostasis and regulation of food intake
	25.9 Nutrition
		Guidelines for healthy eating
		Minerals
		Vitamins
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
26 The urinary system
	26.1 Overview of kidney functions
	26.2 Anatomy and histology of the kidneys
		External anatomy of the kidneys
		Internal anatomy of the kidneys
		Blood and nerve supply of the kidneys
		The nephron
	26.3 Overview of renal physiology
	26.4 Glomerular filtration
		The filtration membrane
		Net filtration pressure
		Glomerular filtration rate
	26.5 Tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion
		Principles of tubular reabsorption and secretion
		Reabsorption and secretion in the proximal convoluted tubule
		Reabsorption in the nephron loop
		Reabsorption in the early distal convoluted tubule
		Reabsorption and secretion in the late distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
		Homeostatic regulation of tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion
	26.6 Production of dilute and concentrated urine
		Formation of dilute urine
		Formation of concentrated urine
	26.7 Evaluation of kidney function
		Urinalysis
		Blood tests
		Renal plasma clearance
	26.8 Urine transportation, storage, and elimination
		Ureters
		Urinary bladder
		Urethra
	26.9 Waste management in other body systems
	26.10 Development of the urinary system
	26.11 Ageing and the urinary system
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
27 Fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base homeostasis
	27.1 Fluid compartments and fluid homeostasis
		Sources of body water gain and loss
		Regulation of body water gain
		Regulation of water and solute loss
		Movement of water between body fluid compartments
	27.2 Electrolytes in body fluids
		Concentrations of electrolytes in body fluids
		Sodium
		Chloride
		Potassium
		Bicarbonate
		Calcium
		Phosphate
		Magnesium
	27.3 Acid–base balance
		The actions of buffer systems
		Exhalation of carbon dioxide
		Kidney excretion of H+
		Acid–base imbalances
	27.4 Ageing and fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base homeostasis
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
28 The Reproductive Systems
	28.1 Male reproductive system
		Scrotum
		Testes
		Reproductive system ducts in males
		Accessory sex glands
		Semen
		Penis
	28.2 Female reproductive system
		Ovaries
		Uterine tubes
		Uterus
		Vagina
		Vulva
		Perineum
		Mammary glands
	28.3 The female reproductive cycle
		Hormonal regulation of the female reproductive cycle
		Phases of the female reproductive cycle
	28.4 Birth control methods and abortion
		Birth control methods
		Abortion
	28.5 Development of the reproductive systems
	28.6 Ageing and the reproductive systems
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
29 Development and inheritance
	29.1 Embryonic period
		First week of development
		Second week of development
		Third week of development
		Fourth week of development
		Fifth through eighth weeks of development
	29.2 Foetal period
	29.3 Teratogens
		Chemicals and drugs
		Cigarette smoking
		Irradiation
	29.4 Prenatal diagnostic tests
		Foetal ultrasonography
		Amniocentesis
		Chorionic villi sampling
		Noninvasive prenatal tests
	29.5 Maternal changes during pregnancy
		Hormones of pregnancy
		Changes during pregnancy
	29.6 Exercise and pregnancy
	29.7 Labour
	29.8 Adjustments of the infant at birth
		Respiratory adjustments
		Cardiovascular adjustments
	29.9 The physiology of lactation
	29.10 Inheritance
		Genotype and phenotype
		Variations on dominant–recessive inheritance
		Autosomes, sex chromosomes, and sex determination
		Sex-linked inheritance
	Medical terminology
	Chapter review
	Critical thinking questions
	Answers to figure questions
Appendix A Measurements
Appendix B Periodic Table
Appendix C Normal Values for Selected Blood Tests
Appendix D Normal Values for Selected Urine Tests
Glossary
Endnotes
Credits
Index
EULA