Preclinical Speech Science: Anatomy, Physiology, Acoustics, and Perception

Preface
Acknowledgments
Reviewers
1 Introduction
	Focus of the Book
	Domain of Preclinical Speech Science
		Levels of Observation
		Subsystems of Speech Production and Swallowing
		Applications of Data
	Domain of Preclinical Hearing Science
		Levels of Observation
		Subsystems of the Auditory System
		Applications of Data
	Review
2 Breathing and Speech Production
	Introduction
	Anatomy of the Breathing Apparatus
		Skeletal Framework
		Breathing Apparatus and Its Subdivisions
			Pulmonary Apparatus
			Chest Wall
			Pulmonary Apparatus–Chest Wall Unit
	Forces of Breathing
		Passive Force
		Active Force
			Muscles of the Rib Cage Wall
			Muscle of the Diaphragm
			Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
		Summary of Passive and Active Forces
		Realization of Passive and Active Forces
	Movements of Breathing
		Movements of the Rib Cage Wall
		Movements of the Diaphragm
		Movements of the Abdominal Wall
		Relative Movements of the Rib Cage Wall and Diaphragm–Abdominal Wall
		Forces Underlying Movements
	Control Variables of Breathing
		Lung Volume
		Alveolar Pressure
		Chest Wall Shape
	Neural Control of Breathing
		Control of Tidal Breathing
		Control of Special Acts of Breathing
		Peripheral Nerves of Breathing
	Ventilation and Gas Exchange During Tidal Breathing
	Breathing and Speech Production
		Extended Steady Utterances
		Running Speech Activities
	Variables That Influence Speech Breathing
		Body Position
			Extended Steady Utterances in the Supine Body Position
			Running Speech Activities in the Supine Body Position
			Speech Breathing in Other Body Positions
		Body Type
		Age
		Sex
		Ventilation and Drive to Breathe
		Cognitive-Linguistic and Social Variables
	Review
	References
3 Laryngeal Function and Speech Production
	Introduction
	Anatomy of the Laryngeal Apparatus
		Skeletal Framework
			Thyroid Cartilage
			Cricoid Cartilage
			Arytenoid Cartilages
			Epiglottis
			Hyoid Bone
		Laryngeal Joints
			Cricothyroid Joints
			Cricoarytenoid Joints
		Internal Topography
			Laryngeal Cavity
			Vocal Folds
			Ventricular Folds
			Laryngeal Ventricles
			Ligaments and Membranes
	Forces of the Laryngeal Apparatus
		Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
		Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
		Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles
			Infrahyoid Muscles
			Suprahyoid Muscles
		Summary of the Laryngeal Muscles
	Movements of the Laryngeal Apparatus
		Movements of the Vocal Folds
			Vocal Fold Abduction
			Vocal Fold Adduction
			Vocal Fold Length Change
		Movements of the Ventricular Folds
		Movements of the Epiglottis
		Movements of the Laryngeal Housing
	Control Variables of Laryngeal Function
		Laryngeal Opposing Pressure
		Laryngeal Airway Resistance
		Glottal Size and Configuration
		Stiffness of the Vocal Folds
		Effective Mass of the Vocal Folds
	Neural Substrates of Laryngeal Control
	Laryngeal Functions
		Degree of Coupling Between the Trachea and Pharynx
		Protection of the Pulmonary Airways
		Containment of the Pulmonary Air Supply
		Sound Generation
	Laryngeal Function in Speech Production
		Transient Noise Production
		Sustained Turbulence Noise Production
		Sustained Voice Production
			Vocal Fold Vibration
			Fundamental Frequency
			Sound Pressure Level
			Fundamental Frequency–Sound Pressure Level Profiles
			Spectrum
			Voice Registers
		Running Speech Activities
			Fundamental Frequency
			Sound Pressure Level
			Spectrum
			Articulation
	Variables that Influence Laryngeal Function During Speech Production
		Age
		Sex
	Review
	References
4 Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function and Speech Production
	Introduction
	Anatomy of the Velopharyngeal-Nasal Apparatus
		Skeletal Framework
		Pharynx
		Velum
		Nasal Cavities
		Outer Nose
	Forces of the Velopharyngeal-Nasal Apparatus
		Muscles of the Pharynx
		Muscles of the Velum
		Muscles of the Outer Nose
	Movements of the Velopharyngeal-Nasal Apparatus
		Movements of the Pharynx
		Movements of the Velum
		Movements of the Outer Nose
	Control Variables of Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function
		Velopharyngeal-Nasal Airway Resistance
		Velopharyngeal Sphincter Compression
		Velopharyngeal-Nasal Acoustic Impedance
	Neural Substrates of Velopharyngeal-Nasal Control
	Velopharyngeal-Nasal Functions
		Coupling Between the Oral and Nasal Cavities
		Coupling Between the Nasal Cavities and Atmosphere
	Ventilation and Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function
		Nasal Valve Modulation
		Nasal Cycling (Side-to-Side)
		Nasal-Oral Switching
	Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function and Speech Production
		Sustained Utterances
		Running Speech Activities
	Variables that Influence Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function
		Body Position
		Age
		Sex
	Review
	References
5 Pharyngeal-Oral Function and Speech Production
	Introduction
	Anatomy of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus
		Skeletal Framework
			Maxilla
			Mandible
			Temporomandibular Joints
		Internal Topography
			Pharyngeal Cavity
			Oral Cavity
			Buccal Cavity
			Mucous Lining
	Forces of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus
		Muscles of the Pharynx
		Muscles of the Mandible
		Muscles of the Tongue
		Muscles of the Lips
	Movements of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus
		Movements of the Pharynx
		Movements of the Mandible
		Movements of the Tongue
		Movements of the Lips
	Control Variables of Pharyngeal-Oral Function
		Pharyngeal-Oral Lumen Size and Configuration
		Pharyngeal-Oral StructuralContact Pressure
		Pharyngeal-Oral Airway Resistance
		Pharyngeal-Oral Acoustic Impedance
	Neural Substrates of Pharyngeal-Oral Control
	Pharyngeal-Oral Functions
		Degree of Coupling Between the Oral Cavity and Atmosphere
		Chewing and Swallowing
		Sound Generation and Filtering
	Speech Production: Articulatory Descriptions
		Vowels
			Place of Major Constriction
			Degree of Major Constriction
			Lip Rounding
		Diphthongs
		Consonants
			Manner of Production
			Place of Production
			Voicing
	Speech Production Stream: Articulatory Processes
		Coarticulation
		Traditional Theory of Coarticulation (Feature Spreading)
		Problems with the Traditional Theory of Coarticulation
		Articulatory Phonology or Gesture Theory
	Variables That Influence Pharyngeal-Oral Function
		Age
		Sex
	Review
	References
6 Speech Physiology Measurement and Analysis
	Introduction
	Measurement and Analysis of Breathing
		Spirometry
		Chest Wall Surface Tracking
		Manometry
	Measurement and Analysis of Laryngeal Function
		Endoscopy
		Electroglottography
		Aeromechanical Observations
	Measurement and Analysis of Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function
		Nasendoscopy
		Aeromechanical Observations
	Measurement and Analysis of Pharyngeal-Oral Function
		Structural and Functional Imaging
			X-Ray Imaging
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Ultrasonic Imaging
		Articulatory Tracking
			X-Ray Microbeam Imaging
			Electromagnetic Sensing (Articulography)
			Optoelectronic Tracking
			Electropalatographic Monitoring
		Aeromechanical Observations
	Health Care Professionals and Clinical Measurements
	Review
	References
7 Acoustics
	Introduction
	Pressure Waves
		The Motions of Vibrating Air Molecules Are Governed by Simple Forces
		The Motions of Vibrating Air Molecules Change the Local Densities of Air
		Pressure Waves, Not Individual Molecules, Propagate Through Space and Vary a sa Function of Both Space and Time
		The Variation of a Pressure Wave in Time and Space Can Be Measured
			Temporal Measures
			Wavelength and Direction of Sound
		Pressure Waves: A Summary and Introduction to Sinusoids
	Sinusoidal Motion
		Sinusoidal Motion (Simple Harmonic Motion) Is Derived from the Linear Projection of Uniform Circular Speed
		When the Linear Projection of Uniform Circular Speed Is Stretched Out in Time, the Result Is a Sine Wave
		Sinusoidal Motion Can Be Described by a Simple Formula and Has Three Important Characteristics: Frequency, Amplitude, and Phase
		Sinusoidal Motion: A Summary
	Complex Acoustic Events
		Complex Periodic Events Have Waveforms That Repeat Their Patterns Over Time and Are Composed of Harmonically Related Frequency Components
		A Complex Periodic Waveform Can Be Considered as the Sum of the Individual Sinusoids at the Harmonic Frequencies
		Complex Aperiodic Events Have Waveforms in Which No Repetitive Pattern Can Be Discerned, and Frequency Components That Are Not Harmonically Related
		Complex Acoustic Events: A Summary
	Resonance
		Mechanical Resonance
			A Spring-Mass Model of Resonance
			The Relative Values of Mass (M) and Elasticity (K) Determine the Frequency of Vibration of the Spring-Mass Model
		The Effects of Mass and Stiffness (Elasticity) on a Resonant System: A Summary
		Acoustic Resonance: Helmholtz Resonators
			The Neck of the Helmholtz Resonator Contains a Column, or Plug of Air, That Behaves Like a Mass When a Force Is Applied to It
			The Bowl of a Resonator Contains a Volume of Air That Behaves Like a Spring When a Force Is Applied to It
		Acoustic Resonance: Tube Resonators
		Resonance in Tubes: A Summary
		Resonance Curves, Damping, and Bandwidth
			Energy Loss (Damping) in Vibratory Systems Can Be Attributed to Four Factors
			Time- and Frequency-Domain Representations of Damping in Acoustic Vibratory Systems
			An Extension of the Resonance Curve Concept: The Shaping of a Source by the Acoustic Characteristics of a Resonator
		Resonance, Damping, Bandwidth, Filters: A Summary
	Review
	References
	Appendix 7–A: The Decibel Scale
8 Acoustic Theory of Vowel Production
	Introduction
	What Is the Precise Nature of the Input Signal Generated by the Vibrating Vocal Folds?
		The Time Domain
		The Frequency Domain
			The Periodic Nature of the Waveform
			The Shape of the Waveform
			The Ratio of Open Time to Closed Time
		Nature of the Input Signal: A Summary
	Why Should the Vocal Tract Be Conceptualized as a Tube Closed at One End?
		The Response of the Vocal Tract to Excitation
		How Are the Acoustic Properties of the Vocal Tract Determined?
		Area Function of the Vocal Tract
	How Does the Vocal Tract Shape the Input Signal? (How Is the Source Spectrum Combined with the Theoretical Vocal Tract Spectrum to Produce a Vocal Tract Output?)
		Formant Bandwidths
		Acoustic Theory of Vowel Production: A Summary
	What Happens to the Resonant Frequencies of the Vocal Tract When the Tube Is Constricted at a Given Location?
		The Three-Parameter Model of Stevens and House
			Tongue Height
			Tongue Advancement
			Configuration of the Lips
		Importance of the Stevens and House Rules: A Summary
			The Connection Between the Stevens and House Rules and Perturbation Theory
			Why Are the Stevens and House Rules Important?
			Another Take on the Relationship Between Vocal Tract Configuration and Vocal Tract Resonances
	Confirmation of the Acoustic Theory of Vowel Production
		Analog Experiments
		Human Experiments
	Review
	References
9 Theory of Consonant Acoustics
	Introduction
	Why Is the Acoustic Theory of Speech Production Most Accurate and Straightforward for Vowels?
	The Acoustics of Coupled (Shunt) Resonators and Their Application to Consonant Acoustics
		Nasal Murmurs
			Energy Loss in the Nasal Cavities, Antiresonances, and the Relative Amplitude of Nasal Murmurs
		Nasal Murmurs: A Summary
		Nasalization
		Nasalization: A Summary
			The Importance of Understanding Nasalization
		Coupled (Shunt) Resonators in the Production of Lateral Sounds
		Coupled (Shunt) Resonators in the Production of Obstruent Sounds
	What Is the Theory of Fricative Acoustics?
		Fluid Flow in Pipes and Source Types
		Aeromechanic/Acoustic Effects in Fricatives: A Summary
		A Typical Fricative Waveform and Its Aeromechanical Correlates
		Mixed Sources in Fricative Production
		Shaping of Fricative Sources by Vocal Tract Resonators
		Measurement of Fricative Acoustics
			Spectral Measurements
			Temporal Measurements
		The Acoustic Theory of Fricatives: A Summary
	What Is the Theory of Stop Acoustics?
		Intervals of Stop Consonant Articulation: Aeromechanics and Acoustics
			Closure (Silent) Interval
			Release (Burst) Interval
			Frication and Aspiration Intervals
			Voice-Onset Time
		Shaping of Stop Sources by Vocal Tract Resonators
			The Nature of Stop Sources
			The Shaping of Stop Sources
		Measurement of Stop Acoustics
			Spectral Measurements
			Temporal Measurements
		Stop Consonants: A Summary
	What Is the Theory of Affricate Acoustics?
	Acoustic Contrasts Associated with the Voicing Distinction in Obstruents
	Review
	References
10 Speech Acoustic Measurement and Analysis
	Introduction
	A Historical Prelude
	The Sound Spectrograph: History and Technique
		The Original Sound Spectrograph: Summary
		Interpretation of Spectrograms: Specific Features
			Axes
			Glottal Pulses
			Formant Frequencies
			Silent Intervals and Stop Bursts
			Aperiodic Intervals
			Segmentation of Spectrograms
	Speech Acoustics Is Not All About Segments: Suprasegmentals
	Digital Techniques for Speech Analysis
		Speech Analysis by Computer: From Recording to Analysis to Output
			Sampling Rate
			Filters
			Bits
			Analysis and Display
	Review
	References
11 Acoustic Phonetics Data
	Introduction
	Vowels
		Vowel Acoustics: Dialect and Cross-Language Phonetics
		Within-Speaker Variability in Formant Frequencies
		Summary of Vowel Formant Frequencies
		A Note on Vowel Formant Frequencies Versus Formant Trajectories
		Vowel Durations
			Intrinsic Vowel Durations
			Extrinsic Factors Affecting Vowel Durations
	Diphthongs
		Diphthongs: Two Connected Vowels or a Unique Phoneme?
		Diphthong Duration
	Nasals
		Nasal Murmurs
		Nasal Place of Articulation
		Nasalization
	Semivowels
		Constriction Interval
		Formant Transitions
		Semivowel Acoustics and Speech Development
		Semivowel Durations
	Fricatives
		Sibilants Versus Nonsibilants: Spectral Characteristics
		Quantification of Fricative Spectra
		Formant Transitions and Fricative Distinctions
		Fricative Duration
			Laryngeal Devoicing Gesture and Fricative Duration
	/h/ Acoustics
	Stops
		Closure Interval and Burst
			Closure Interval Duration
			Flap Closures
			Closure Duration and Place of Articulation
		Stop Voicing: Some Further Considerations
			Laryngeal Devoicing Gesture, Stop Closures, and Voice Onset Time
		Bursts
			Acoustic Invariance for Stop Place of Articulation
		Acoustic Invariance and Theories of Speech Perception
		Locus Equations
		Acoustic Invariance at the Interface of Speech Production and Perception
	Affricates
	Acoustic Characteristics of Prosody
		Phrase-Level F0 Contours
		Phrase-Level Intensity Contours
			Stress
			Rhythm
	Review
	References
12 Speech Perception
	Introduction
	Early Speech Perception Research and Categorical Perception
		The /ba/-/da/-/ga/ Experiment
		Categorical Perception: General Considerations
			Labeling Versus Discrimination
		Categorical Perception: So What?
			Speech Perception Is Species Specific
		The Motor Theory of Speech Perception: Proofs and Falsifications
			Categorical Perception of Stop Place of Articulation Shows the “Match” to Speech Production
			Duplex Perception
			Acoustic Invariance
			Categorical Perception of Stop Place of Articulation Shows the “Match” to Speech Production
		The Competition: General Auditory Explanations of Speech Perception
			Sufficient Acoustic Invariance
			Replication of Speech Perception Effects Using Nonspeech Signals
			Animal and Infant Perception of Speech Signals
		The Competition: Direct Realism
	Vowel Perception
		Motor Theory (Original and Revised)
		Auditory Theories
			Normalization
		Direct Realism
	A Summary of Speech Perception Theories
		Speech Perception and Word Recognition
	Speech Intelligibility
		“Explanatory” Speech Intelligibility Tests
		Scaled Speech Intelligibility
		Phonetic Transcription
	Why Should Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists Care About Speech Perception?
	Review
	References
13 Anatomy and Physiology of the Auditory System
	Introduction
	Temporal Bone
	Peripheral Anatomy of the Auditory System
	Outer Ear (Conductive Mechanism)
		Pinna (Auricle)
		External Auditory Meatus (External Auditory Canal)
		Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)
	Middle Ear (Conductive Mechanism)
		Chambers of the Middle Ear
		Ossicles and Associated Structures
		Ligaments of the Middle Ear
		Muscles of the Middle Ear
		Auditory (Eustachian) Tube
		Medial and Lateral Wall Views of the Middle Ear: A Summary
		Transmission of Sound Energy by the Conductive Mechanism
	Inner Ear (Sensorineural Mechanism)
		Vestibular System
			Semicircular Canals
			Vestibule: Saccule and Utricle
			Summary: Vestibular Structures and Mechanisms
		Cochlea
			Fluid Motion within the Scalae: A Broad View
			Hair Cells and Associated Structures
			Traveling Waves
		The Traveling Wave Is Transformed to Action Potentials
	Auditory Nerve and Auditory Pathways (Neural Mechanism)
		Auditory Nerve and Associated Structures
			Efferent Auditory System
			“Tuning” of the Peripheral Frequency Response
		Ascending Auditory Pathways
			Acoustic Reflex
	Review
	References
14 Auditory Psychophysics
	Auditory Psychophysics
	Psychophysics of Loudness
		Auditory Thresholds
		Equal Loudness Contours for Sinusoids
		The Psychophysical Function Relating SPL to Scaled Loudness of Sinusoids
			Phons
			Sones
		Loudness of Complex Sounds
			The Peripheral Auditory System Is a Series of Bandpass Filters
			The Critical Band Concept and the Loudness of Complex Sounds
		Sensitivity of the Auditory System to Loudness Change
	Psychophysics of Pitch
		Pitch of Sinusoids
		Sensitivity of the Auditory System to Pitch Change
		Pitch of Complex Acoustic Events
			Pitch of Complex Periodic Events
			Pitch of Complex Aperiodic Events
	Psychophysics of Timbre
	Psychophysics of Time
	Psychophysics of Sound Localization
		Interaural Cues to Sound Location
		Auditory Objects and Auditory Scene Analysis
	Review
	References
15 Neural Structures and Mechanismsf or Speech, Language, and Hearing
	Introduction
	The Nervous System: An Ov erview and Concepts
		Central Versus Peripheral Nervous System
		Autonomic Nervous System
		Anatomical Planes and Directions
		White and Gray Matter, Tracts and Nuclei, Nerves and Ganglia
			Gray Matter and Nuclei
			White Matter and Fiber Tracts
			Ganglia
		Efferent and Afferent
		Neurons and Synapses
		Lateralization and Specialization of Function
	Cerebral Hemispheres and White Matter
		Cerebral Hemispheres
			Frontal Lobe
			Parietal Lobe
			Temporal Lobe
			Occipital Lobe
			Insula
			Limbic System (Limbic Lobe)
		Cerebral White Matter
			Association Tracts
			Striatal Tracts
			Commissural Tracts
			Descending Projection Tracts
			Ascending Projection Tracts
	Subcortical Nuclei and Cerebellum
		Basal Ganglia
		Cortico-Striatal-Cortical Loop
		Role of Basal Ganglia
		Thalamus
		Cerebellum
			Cortico-Cerebellar-Cortical Loop
			Role of Cerebellum
		Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia: N ew Concepts
	Brainstem and Cranial Nerves
		Surface Features of the Brainstem: Ventral View
		Ventral Surface of Midbrain
		Ventral Surface of Pons
		Ventral Surface of Medulla
		Surface Features of the Brainstem: Dorsal View
			Dorsal Surface of Midbrain
			Dorsal Surface of Pons
			Dorsal Surface of Medulla
		Cranial Nerves and Associated Brainstem Nuclei
			Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory)
			Cranial Nerve II (Optic)
			Cranial Nerve III (Oculomotor)
			Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear)
			Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal)
			Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens)
			Cranial Nerve VII (Facial)
			Cranial Nerve VIII (Auditory-Vestibular Nerve)
			Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal)
			Cranial Nerve X (Vagus)
			Cranial Nerve XI (Spinal Accessory Nerve)
			Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal)
	Cortical Innervation Patterns
		Why Innervation Patterns Matter
		The Cranial Nerve Exam and Speech Production
	Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
		Spinal Cord
		Spinal Nerves
	Nervous System Cells
		Glial Cells
		Neurons
			Cell Body (Soma)
			Axon and Terminal Button
			Synapses
		Resting Potential, Action Potential, and Neurotransmitters
			Resting Potential
			Action Potential
			Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters
		Neuromuscular Junction
	Meninges, Ventricles, Blood Supply
		Meninges
			Dura Mater
			Arachnoid Mater
			Pia Mater
			Meninges and Clinically Relevant Spaces
		Ventricles
			Lateral Ventricles
			Third Ventricle
			Cerebral Aqueduct, Fourth Ventricle, and Other Passageways for CSF
			Production, Composition, and Circulation of CSF
		Blood Supply of Brain
			Anterior Circulation
			Posterior Circulation
			Circle of Willis
			MCA and Blood Supply to the Dominant Hemisphere
			Blood–Brain Barrier
	Speech and Language Functions of the Brain: Possible Sites and Mechanisms
		Network View of Brain Function
		DIVA
			DIVA: Speech Sound Map (lvPMC)
			DIVA: Articulatory Velocity/Position Maps (PMC)
			DIVA: Auditory and Somatosensory Processing: Parietal Cortex and Frontal-Parietal Association Tracts
			DIVA: Where Is Aphasia, Where Are Dysarthria Types?
	Review
	References
16 Swallowing
	Introduction
	Anatomy
		Breathing, Laryngeal, Velopharyngeal-Nasal, and Pharyngeal-Oral Structures
		Esophagus
		Stomach
	Forces and Movements of Swallowing
		Oral Preparatory Phase
		Oral Transport Phase
		Pharyngeal Phase
		Esophageal Phase
		Overlap of Phases
	Breathing and Swallowing
	Neural Control of Swallowing
		Role of the Peripheral Nervous System
		Role of the Central Nervous System
	Variables That Influence Swallowing
		Bolus Characteristics
			Consistency and Texture
			Volume
			Taste
		Swallowing Mode
			Single Versus Sequential Swallows
			Cued Versus Uncued Swallows
		Body Position
		Development
		Aging
		Sex
	Measurement and Analysis of Swallowing
		Videofluoroscopy
		Endoscopy
		Manometry
		Surface Electromyography
		Ultrasonography
		Aeromechanical Observations
		Client Self-Report
	Health Care Professionals
	Review
	References
Name Index
Subject Index