Practical Research: Planning And Design

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
Global Edition Acknowledgments
Brief Contents
Contents
PART I The Fundamentals
	Chapter 1
		The Nature and Tools of Research
			What Research Is Not
			What Research Is
			Philosophical Assumptions Underlying Research Methodologies
			Tools of Research
				The Library and Its Resources
				Computer Technology
				Measurement
				Statistics
				Language
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Communicating Effectively Through Writing
					GUIDELINES: Writing to Communicate
					GUIDELINES: Using the Tools in Word‐Processing Software
				The Human Mind
					Critical Thinking
					Deductive Logic
					Inductive Reasoning
					Scientific Method
					Theory Building
					Collaboration with Other Minds
			Reflections on Noteworthy Research
			Exploring Research in Your Field
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline
					CHECKLIST: Interviewing an Expert Researcher
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
PART II Focusing Your Research Efforts
	Chapter 2
		The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process
			Finding Research Projects
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying and Presenting the Research Problem or Question
					GUIDELINES: Choosing an Appropriate Problem or Question
					GUIDELINES: Writing a Purpose Statement
					CHECKLIST: Evaluating a Purpose Statement
			Dividing the Main Research Problem or Question into Subproblems
				Subproblems Versus Pseudo‐Subproblems
				Characteristics of Subproblems
				Identifying Subproblems
					Taking a Paper‐and‐Pencil Approach
					Using Mind‐Mapping (Brainstorming) Software
			Every Research Problem Needs Further Delineation
				Identifying a Relevant Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
				Stating Hypotheses
					Distinguishing Between Research Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses in Quantitative Research
				Identifying the General Concepts and Possibly Also Specific Variables That Are the Focus of the Investigation
					CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Independent, Dependent, Mediating, and Moderating Variables
				Defining Terms
				Stating Assumptions
				Identifying Delimitations and Limitations
				Importance of the Study
			Writing the First Chapter or Section of a Research Proposal
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the First Section of a Proposal
					Checklist: Evaluating Your Proposed Research Project
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem
					Guidelines: Fine‐Tuning Your Research Problem or Question
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
	Chapter 3
		Review of the Related Literature
			Understanding the Role of the Literature Review
			Strategies for Locating Related Literature
				Using the Library Catalog
				Using Online Databases
				Consulting with Reference Librarians
				Surfing the Internet
				Using Citations and Reference Lists of Scholars Who Have Gone Before You
				Identifying Your Sources: The Importance of Adhering to an Appropriate Style Manual
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning a Literature Search
					GUIDELINES: Using Your Library Time Efficiently
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Evaluating the Research of Others
					CHECKLIST: Evaluating a Research Article
			Knowing When to Quit
			Organizing and Synthesizing the Literature into a Cohesive Review
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the Literature Review
					GUIDELINES: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Literature Review
			A Sample Literature Review
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
	Chapter 4
		Planning Your Research Project
			Planning a General Approach
				Research Planning Versus Research Methodology
			The Nature and Role of Data in Research
				Data Are Transient and Ever Changing
				Primary Data Versus Secondary Data
				Planning for Data Collection
			Linking Data and Research Methodology
				Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies
					Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Designs
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Choosing a General Research Approach
					GUIDELINES: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach
			Choosing Methods That Enhance the Value of Your Research Project
				Enhancing the Credibility of Your Findings
				Enhancing the Generalizability of Your Findings
			Choosing Appropriate Assessment Strategies
				Distinguishing Between Substantial and Intangible Phenomena
					Assessing Intangible Phenomena: An Example
				Types of Measurement Scales
					Nominal Scales
					Ordinal Scales
					Interval Scales
					Ratio Scales
					CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Scales of Measurement
				Validity and Reliability in Assessment
					Validity of Assessment Strategies
					Reliability of Assessment Strategies
					Thinking of Validity and Reliability as Reflections of Error in Your Assessments
					CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Problems with Validity and Reliability in Assessment Strategies
			Ethical Issues in Research
				Protection from Harm
				Voluntary and Informed Participation
				Right to Privacy
				Honesty with Professional Colleagues
				Institutional Review Boards
				Professional Codes of Ethics
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning an Ethical Research Study
					CHECKLIST: Determining Whether Your Proposed Study Is Ethically Defensible
			Critically Scrutinizing Your Overall Plan
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Judging the Feasibility of a Research Project
					CHECKLIST: Determining Whether a Proposed Research Project Is Realistic and Practical
				When You Can’t Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Plan of Attack
				Using Project Management Software and Electronic Planners
				Keeping an Optimistic and Task‐Oriented Outlook
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
	Chapter 5
		Writing the Research Proposal
			Characteristics of a Proposal
				A Proposal Is a Straightforward Document
				A Proposal Is Not a Literary Production
				A Proposal Is Clearly Organized
			Organizing and Writing a Research Proposal
				Formatting Headings and Subheadings
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing Your Proposal
					GUIDELINES: Writing the First Draft
					GUIDELINES: Revising Your Proposal
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Strengthening Your Proposal
					CHECKLIST: Evaluating an Early Draft of a Research Proposal
			Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing
			A Sample Research Proposal
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
PART III Research Designs
	Chapter 6
		Descriptive Research
			Descriptive Research Designs
				Observation Studies
				Correlational Research
					A Caution About Interpreting Correlational Results
				Developmental Designs
				Experience‐Sampling Methods
				Survey Research
					Face‐to‐Face and Telephone Interviews
					Questionnaires
			Planning for Data Collection in a Descriptive Study
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Checklists, Rating Scales, and Rubrics
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Computerizing Observations
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning and Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study
					GUIDELINES: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire
					GUIDELINES: Constructing a Questionnaire
					GUIDELINES: Using Technology to Facilitate Questionnaire Administration and Data Analysis
					GUIDELINES: Maximizing Your Return Rate for a Questionnaire
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using the Internet to Collect Data for a Descriptive Study
			Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study
				Sampling Designs
					Probability Sampling
					Nonprobability Sampling
				Sampling in Surveys of Very Large Populations
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Choosing an Appropriate Sample in Descriptive Research
					CHECKLIST: Considering the Nature of the Population When Identifying Your Sampling Procedure
			Common Sources of Bias in Descriptive Studies
				Sampling Bias
				Instrumentation Bias
				Response Bias
				Researcher Bias
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Acknowledging the Probable Presence of Bias in Descriptive Research
					GUIDELINES: Identifying Possible Sampling Bias in Questionnaire Research
					CHECKLIST: Identifying Potential Sources of Bias in a Descriptive Study
			Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research
			Some Final Suggestions
			A Sample Dissertation
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
	Chapter 7
		Experimental, Quasi‐Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs
			The Importance of Control
				Controlling for Confounding Variables
			Types of Experimental, Quasi‐Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs
			Pre‐Experimental Designs
				Design 1: One‐Shot Experimental Case Study
				Design 2: One‐Group Pretest–Posttest Design
				Design 3: Static Group Comparison
			True Experimental Designs
				Design 4: Control‐Group Pretest–Posttest Design
				Design 5: Solomon Four‐Group Design
				Design 6: Control‐Group Posttest‐Only Design
				Design 7: Within‐Subjects Design
			Quasi‐Experimental Designs
				Design 8: Nonrandomized Control‐Group Pretest–Posttest Design
				Design 9: Simple Time‐Series Design
				Design 10: Control‐Group Time‐Series Design
				Design 11: Reversal Time‐Series Design
				Design 12: Alternating‐Treatments Design
				Design 13: Multiple‐Baseline Design
				Using Designs 11, 12, and 13 in Single‐Case Intervention Research
			Ex Post Facto Designs
				Design 14: Simple Ex Post Facto Design
			Factorial Designs
				Design 15: Two‐Factor Experimental Design
				Design 16: Combined Experimental and Ex Post Facto Design
					CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Quantitative Research Designs
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Determining Possible Cause‐and‐Effect Relationships
					CHECKLIST: Looking for Confounding Variables
			Meta‐Analyses
			Conducting Experiments on the Internet
			Testing Your Hypotheses, and Beyond
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Acknowledging the Probable Presence of Bias in Experimental Research
					CHECKLIST: Identifying Potential Sources of Bias and Potential Threats to External Validity in an Experimental, Quasi‐Experimental, or Ex Post Facto Study
			A Sample Dissertation
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
	Chapter 8
		Qualitative Research Methods
			Research Problems and Methodology Choice in Qualitative Research
				Potential Advantages of a Qualitative Approach
			Qualitative Research Designs
				Case Study
				Ethnography
				Phenomenological Study
				Grounded Theory Study
				Narrative Inquiry
				Content Analysis
				CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Choosing a Qualitative Research Design
			Collecting Data in Qualitative Research
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Ensuring That Qualitative Data Collection Yields Credible, Trustworthy Data
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Selecting an Appropriate Sample for a Qualitative Study
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Making Observations in a Qualitative Study
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning and Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Study
					GUIDELINES: Conducting a Productive Interview
				An Example in International Relations
				Using Technology to Facilitate Collection of Interview Data
			Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning the Logistics of a Qualitative Study
					CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Methodology of a Qualitative Study
			A Sample Dissertation
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
	Chapter 9
		Mixed‐Methods Designs
			When Mixed‐Methods Designs Are Most Useful and Appropriate
			General Categories of Mixed‐Methods Research
				Convergent Designs
				Exploratory Sequential Designs
				Explanatory Sequential Designs
				Longitudinal Mixed‐Methods Designs
				Multiphase Iterative Designs
				CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Mixed‐Methods Research Designs
			Planning a Mixed‐Methods Study
				Identifying Research Questions and Hypotheses
				Conducting the Literature Review
				Choosing One or More Appropriate Samples
				Ensuring That the Study Will Have Reasonable Credibility
				Analyzing and Interpreting the Data
			Special Ethical Considerations in Mixed‐Methods Research
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Deciding Whether to Use a Mixed‐Methods Design
					CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Logistics and Feasibility of a Mixed‐Methods Study
			A Sample Dissertation
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
	Chapter 10
		Action Research and Participatory Designs
			Action‐Oriented Models and Designs
				Action Research/Teacher Research
				Design‐Based Research (DBR)
				Participatory Action Research (PAR) and Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR)
				Community‐Based Research (CBR) Models
					Course‐Based Action Research
					Community‐Based Participatory Research
					Community‐Based Qualitative Research
					CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Choosing an Action‐Oriented Design
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Deciding Whether to Use Action Research and/or a Participatory Design
					CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Logistics and Feasibility of Action Research, a Participatory Design, or a Combination of the Two
			Data Collection and Analysis in Action Research
			Disseminating the Findings of Action Research Projects
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Community Forums as a Means of Disseminating the Results of Action Research and Participatory Research Projects
					GUIDELINES: Planning and Conducting an Effective Community Forum
			A Sample Research Report
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
PART IV Data Analyses
	Chapter 11
		Analyzing Quantitative Data
			Exploring and Organizing a Data Set
				Organizing Data to Make Them Easier to Think About and Interpret
				Using Computer Spreadsheets to Organize and Analyze Data
			Choosing Appropriate Statistics
				Functions of Statistics
					Statistics as Estimates of Population Parameters
				Considering the Nature of the Data
					Single‐Group Versus Multi‐Group Data
					Continuous Versus Discrete Variables
					Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Data
					Normal and Non‐Normal Distributions
					Choosing Between Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics
			Descriptive Statistics
				Measures of Central Tendency
					Curves Determine Means
					Measures of Central Tendency as Predictors
				Measures of Variability: Dispersion and Deviation
					How Great Is the Spread?
					Using the Mean and Standard Deviation to Calculate Standard Scores
					Keeping Measures of Central Tendency and Variability in Perspective
				Measures of Association: Correlation
					How Validity and Reliability of Assessment Strategies Affect Correlation Coefficients
					A Reminder About Correlations
			Inferential Statistics
				Estimating Population Parameters
					An Example: Estimating a Population Mean
					Point Versus Interval Estimates
				Testing Hypotheses
					Making Errors in Hypothesis Testing
					Examples of Statistical Techniques for Testing Hypotheses
				Meta‐Analysis
			Using Statistical Software Packages
			Interpreting the Data
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Analyzing and Interpreting Data in a Quantitative Study
					CHECKLIST: Choosing Statistical Procedures
			A Sample Dissertation
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
	Chapter 12
		Analyzing Qualitative and Mixed‐Methods Data
			Qualitative Analysis Strategies
				General Strategies for Organizing and Analyzing Qualitative Data
				Creswell’s Data Analysis Spiral
				An Example: Data Analysis in a Grounded Theory Study
				An Example: Data Analysis in a Content Analysis Study
				An Example: Data Analysis in an Ethnographic Study
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Analysis
			Acknowledging the Role of Researcher‐as‐Instrument in Qualitative Research
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning Data Analysis for a Qualitative Study
					CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Data Analysis in a Qualitative Study
			Analyzing and Interpreting Mixed‐Methods Data
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Computer Software Programs to Facilitate Mixed‐Methods Data Analysis
			Systematic Reviews of Qualitative and Mixed‐Methods Studies
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Observing How Experienced Researchers Have Conducted Qualitative and Mixed‐Methods Research
					CHECKLIST: Evaluating a Qualitative or Mixed‐Methods Study
			A Sample Dissertation
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
PART V Research Reports
	Chapter 13
		Planning and Preparing a Final Research Report
			Getting Started
				Surfing the Internet for Writing Assistance
				Learn by Looking
			Essential Elements of a Research Report
				Explanation of the Research Problem or Question
				Description of Study Design and Data‐Collection Methods
				Presentation of the Data and Their Analyses
				Interpretations of the Data
				Identification of Possible Weaknesses of the Study
				Summary and Connections to a Broader Context
				Maintaining Your Academic Integrity
			Front Matter and End Matter
				Preliminary Pages
				Footnotes and Endnotes
				Reference List
				Appendix Content
			Organizing a Research Report
			Writing—and Finishing!—a Report
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing Your Final Report
					GUIDELINES: Writing a Clear, Coherent Report
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Writing Schedule
					GUIDELINES: Pinning Down and Adhering to a Workable Schedule
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Critiquing a Final Research Report
					CHECKLIST: Criteria for Critiquing a Research Report
			Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing
				Conference Presentations
				PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Presenting Your Research at a Professional Conference
					GUIDELINES: Presenting an Effective Paper or Poster
				Journal Articles
				Sharing Authorship
				Responding to Reviewers’ Critiques
			A Closing Thought
			Application Exercises
			For Further Reading
Appendices
	Appendix A Using a Spreadsheet: Microsoft Excel
		Using Excel to Keep Track of Literature Resources
		Using Excel to Record and Recode Data
		Reorganizing Data in Excel
		Using Excel to Perform Simple Statistical Analyses
	Appendix B Using SPSS
		Creating a Data Set
		Computing Basic Descriptive Statistics
		Computing Inferential Statistics
Glossary
References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
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