Practical handbook of soil, vadose zone, and ground-water contamination : assessment, prevention, and remediation

Practical Handbook of Soil, Vadose Zone, and Ground-water Contamination: Assessment, Prevention and Remediation......Page 1
Preface to the First Edition......Page 5
The Authors......Page 7
Acknowledgments......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
List of Reference Index Tables......Page 18
1.1 GEOLOGIC MATERIALS......Page 20
Part I: Basic Concepts......Page 19
1.1.1 Mineralogy......Page 21
1.1.2 Texture and Fabric......Page 23
1.1.3 Rocks......Page 24
1.2.2 Chemical Weathering......Page 27
1.2.3 Erosion and Deposition......Page 28
1.3.1 Stratigraphic Relationships......Page 29
1.3.2 Age and Relationship of Stratigraphic Units......Page 30
1.3.3 Folds and Fractures......Page 31
1.3.4 Geologic Maps and Cross Sections......Page 32
1.4.1 Factors of Soil Formation......Page 33
1.4.2 Soil Classification......Page 34
1.4.3 Soil Physical Properties......Page 35
1.5 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND GROUND WATER......Page 39
1.5.2 Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology......Page 40
1.6 GEOLOGIC SETTINGS OF GROUND WATER OCCURRENCE AND QUALITY......Page 42
1.6.2 Ground Water in Sedimentary Rocks......Page 44
1.6.4 Regional Relationships in Ground-Water Quality......Page 45
1.7 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 47
2.1 GROUND WATER IN THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE......Page 58
2.2.1 Precipitation......Page 59
2.2.2 Infiltration......Page 60
2.2.4 Distribution of Precipitation in the Hydrologic Cycle......Page 61
2.3.2 Drainage Basins......Page 62
2.3.3 Stream Types......Page 63
2.3.4 Surface Water Quality......Page 66
2.4.1 Soil Water Energy Concepts......Page 67
2.4.2 Subdivisions of the Vadose Zone......Page 68
2.4.3 Soil Moisture Retention Relationships......Page 69
2.4.4 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Flow......Page 70
2.5.2 Unconfined and Confined Aquifers......Page 71
2.5.3 Heterogeneity and Anisotropy......Page 72
2.5.5 Ground Water Fluctuations......Page 74
2.5.6 Ground Water Divides and Other Aquifer Boundaries......Page 76
2.6 WATER IN THE SATURATED ZONE 2: WATER STORAGE AND FLOW......Page 77
2.6.1 Aquifer Storage Properties: Porosity and Specific Yield/Storativity......Page 78
2.6.3 Darcy’s Law......Page 79
2.6.4 Flow Between Aquifers......Page 80
2.6.5 Interstitial Velocity and Time of Travel......Page 81
2.6.6 Ground-Water Pumping Concepts......Page 82
2.7 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 84
3.1 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL SYSTEMS......Page 98
3.1.1 Equilibrium, Thermodynamics, and Kinetics......Page 99
3.1.3 Phases and Speciation......Page 100
3.1.4 Distribution vs. Transformation Processes......Page 101
3.2.1 Acid?Base Equilibria......Page 102
3.2.2 Sorption......Page 103
3.2.3 Precipitation and Dissolution......Page 104
3.2.4 Immiscible Phase Separation......Page 105
3.3.1 Complexation......Page 106
3.3.2 Hydrolysis......Page 107
3.3.3 Oxidation?Reduction......Page 109
3.3.4 Biotransformation......Page 111
3.3.5 Other Transformation Processes......Page 112
3.4.1 pH......Page 113
3.4.2 Eh and Other Redox Indicators......Page 114
3.4.3 Salinity......Page 117
3.4.4 Soil and Aquifer Matrix......Page 118
3.5.1 Classification of Microorganisms......Page 119
3.5.2 Natural Biological Activity in the Subsurface......Page 120
3.5.3 Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Degradation......Page 121
3.5.4 Biotransformation of Organic Contaminants......Page 122
3.6 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 125
4.1 DEFINITIONS OF CONTAMINATION......Page 133
4.2.1 Extent of Contamination......Page 134
4.2.2 Major Types of Contaminants......Page 135
4.2.3 Major Sources of Contamination......Page 136
4.3 GENERAL MECHANISMS OF GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION......Page 139
4.3.1 Infiltration......Page 140
4.3.3 Direct Migration......Page 141
4.3.4 Interaquifer Exchange......Page 142
4.4.1 Advection......Page 143
4.4.2 Hydrodynamic Dispersion......Page 144
4.4.3 Density/Viscosity Differences......Page 146
4.5 CONTAMINANT RETARDATION......Page 150
4.5.2 Sorption......Page 151
4.5.3 Retardation by Sorption......Page 154
4.6 PHASE PARTITIONING TO ASSESS PRESENCE OF DNAPLS IN THE SUBSURFACE......Page 155
4.6.2 Soil Water Concentrations from Soil Gas Concentration......Page 156
4.7.2 pH and Eh......Page 157
4.7.4 Source Characteristics......Page 158
4.7.5 Interactions of Various Factors on Contaminant Plumes......Page 159
4.8 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 163
Part II: Assessment and Monitoring......Page 182
5.1.1 Investigation Objectives......Page 183
5.1.2 Investigation Scale......Page 184
5.1.3 Planning and Conducting Contaminant Investigations......Page 185
5.1.4 Special Considerations for DNAPL Investigations......Page 189
5.1.5 Accelerated/Expedited Site Characterization Approaches......Page 190
5.2.2 Geologic and Hydrologic Data......Page 191
5.2.3 Air Photo Interpretation......Page 194
5.3.1 Types of Monitoring......Page 195
5.3.2 Sampling Protocol......Page 196
5.3.3 Sample Location......Page 197
5.3.4 Sample Parameter/Analyte Selection......Page 200
5.3.5 Sampling Frequency, Type, and Size......Page 202
5.3.6 Sample Collection and Handling......Page 203
5.4.1 Deterministic vs. Random Geochemical Data......Page 206
5.4.3 Measurement Bias, Precision, and Accuracy......Page 207
5.4.4 Sources of Error......Page 208
5.5.2 Limit of Detection......Page 211
5.5.3 Types of QA/QC Samples......Page 213
5.6.1 Statistical Approaches to Geochemical Variability......Page 214
5.6.2 Geostatistics......Page 215
5.7 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 216
6.1.1 Uses of Geophysics in Contamination Studies......Page 229
6.1.2 General Characteristics of Geophysical Methods......Page 231
6.2.1 Visible and Near-Infrared Aerial Photography......Page 232
6.2.2 Other Airborne Remote Sensing Techniques......Page 234
6.3.1 Electromagnetics......Page 235
6.3.2 Resistivity and Other Electrical Methods......Page 237
6.3.4 Magnetometry......Page 239
6.3.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar......Page 240
6.3.7 Thermal Methods......Page 241
6.4 BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS......Page 242
6.4.2 Nuclear Logging Methods......Page 243
6.4.3 Acoustic and Seismic Logging Methods......Page 245
6.4.4 Lithologic and Hydrogeologic Characterization Logs......Page 246
6.4.5 Downhole Methods in Ground-Water Contamination Studies......Page 247
6.5 CPT AND OTHER DIRECT-PUSH SENSING METHODS......Page 250
6.6 SELECTION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS......Page 251
6.7.1 General Geophysics......Page 252
6.7.3 Evaluation of Literature References......Page 253
7.1.1 Matric Potential and Moisture Content......Page 272
7.1.2 Infiltration and Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 273
7.1.3 Other Vadose Water Budget Parameters......Page 275
7.1.4 Other Hydrologic Parameters......Page 276
7.2.1 Water Level Measurement......Page 277
7.2.2 Plotting Equipotential Contours......Page 278
7.2.3 Flow Nets......Page 280
7.2.4 Common Errors in Contouring......Page 281
7.2.5 Common Errors in Interpretation......Page 284
7.3.2 Well Tests......Page 285
7.3.4 Laboratory Measurements......Page 288
7.4.1 Estimation from Soil Survey Data......Page 289
7.4.2 Estimation from Aquifer Matrix Type......Page 291
7.5.1 Delineation of Aquifer Boundaries......Page 292
7.5.2 Characterization of Aquifer Heterogeneity and Anisotropy......Page 293
7.5.3 Presence and Degree of Confinement......Page 295
7.5.4 Characterization of Fractured Rock and Karst Aquifers......Page 297
7.6 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 302
8.1.1 Measurement of Hydrogeologic Parameters......Page 317
8.1.2 Delineation of Contaminant Sources and Plumes......Page 319
8.1.3 Characterizing Vadose Zone Hydrology......Page 320
8.2.1 Overview of Types of Tracers......Page 321
8.2.3 Tracer Characteristics......Page 322
8.3 TYPES OF TRACERS......Page 323
8.3.1 Ions......Page 324
8.3.2 Dyes......Page 325
8.3.3 Gases......Page 328
8.3.4 Isotopes......Page 330
8.3.5 Alcohol Tracers......Page 332
8.3.7 Particulates......Page 334
8.4 TRACER TESTS IN KARST AND FRACTURED ROCK......Page 337
8.5 TRACER TESTS IN POROUS MEDIA......Page 338
8.5.2 Single-Well Techniques......Page 339
8.5.3 Two-Well Techniques......Page 340
8.5.5 Design and Construction of Test Wells......Page 341
8.5.7 Interpretation of Results......Page 342
8.6 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 345
9.1.1 Vadose Zone Monitoring Installations......Page 356
9.1.2 Ground Water Monitoring Installations......Page 357
9.2.2 Auger and Rotary Methods......Page 360
9.3 CONVENTIONAL MONITORING WELL INSTALLATIONS......Page 361
9.3.1 Well Casing and Screens......Page 363
9.3.2 Filter Pack, Grouts, and Seals......Page 365
9.3.3 Well Development......Page 367
9.3.5 Common Design Flaws and Installation Problems......Page 370
9.4.1 Subsurface Solids Sampling......Page 371
9.4.2 Soil Gas Sampling......Page 372
9.4.3 Soil-Solute Sampling......Page 373
9.4.4 Microbiological Sampling and Other Sensitive Constituents......Page 375
9.5.1 Portable Well Samplers......Page 376
9.5.2 Portable/Permanent Samplers and Sensors......Page 377
9.5.4 New Developments in Multilevel Sampling......Page 379
9.6.1 Field Analysis vs. CLP Analytical Laboratory......Page 380
9.6.3 Types of Analytical Instrumentation......Page 381
9.7 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 382
10.1 USES OF MODELS AND COMPUTERS......Page 404
10.1.2 Site Assessment......Page 405
10.2.1 Deterministic vs. Stochastic Models......Page 406
10.2.3 Analytical vs. Numerical Models......Page 408
10.2.4 Grid Design......Page 409
10.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUND-WATER COMPUTER CODES......Page 411
10.3.1 Porous Media Flow Codes......Page 412
10.3.2 Porous Media Solute Transport Codes......Page 413
10.3.4 Specialized Codes......Page 415
10.4 GENERAL CODE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS......Page 416
10.4.1 Ground-Water Flow Parameters......Page 417
10.4.2 Contaminant Transport Parameters......Page 418
10.4.4 Usability and Reliability......Page 420
10.4.5 Quality Assurance/Quality Control......Page 421
10.5 OTHER GEOENVIRONMENTAL COMPUTER APPLICATIONS......Page 422
10.5.3 Statistical Analysis......Page 423
10.5.4 Data Plotting and Other Graphics......Page 424
10.5.5 Geographic Information Systems......Page 425
10.6 GUIDE TO MAJOR INFORMATION SOURCES......Page 429
11.1.1 Facility-Specific Waste Management and Control......Page 449
Part III: Prevention and Remediation......Page 448
11.2.1 Criteria for Delineation of Wellhead Protection Areas......Page 450
11.2.2 Overview of Wellhead Protection Delineation Methods......Page 453
11.2.3 Vulnerability Mapping......Page 455
11.2.4 Selection of Delineation Methods......Page 457
11.3 IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL CONTAMINANT SOURCES......Page 460
11.3.1 Step-by-Step Inventory Procedures......Page 462
11.4 ASSESSING THE RISK FROM POTENTIAL CONTAMINANTS......Page 463
11.4.1 Risk Ranking Methods......Page 465
11.4.2 Other Risk Evaluation Methods......Page 468
11.5.1 General Regulatory and Nonregulatory Approaches......Page 469
11.5.4 Contingency Planning......Page 470
11.6 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 478
12.1 CONCEPTUAL APPROACH TO SOIL AND GROUND WATER REMEDIATION......Page 497
12.2 METHODOLOGY......Page 499
12.2.1 Site Characterization......Page 500
12.2.2 Assessment of Problem......Page 503
12.2.4 Treatment Approaches......Page 505
12.2.5 Monitoring Program......Page 507
12.3.2 Treatability Studies......Page 508
12.3.3 Treatment Trains......Page 511
12.5 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 512
13.1 GENERAL APPROACHES TO SOIL REMEDIATION......Page 525
13.2.1 Significant Chemical Properties......Page 527
13.2.2 Significant Soil Properties......Page 528
13.2.3 Design Considerations......Page 531
13.2.4 Enhanced Biodegradation......Page 533
13.3 BIOREMEDIATION......Page 534
13.3.2 Significant Environmental Parameters......Page 535
13.4.1 Sorption, Ion Exchange, and Precipitation......Page 538
13.4.2 Solidification and Stabilization......Page 539
13.4.3 Soil Flushing......Page 540
13.4.4 Soil Thermal Extraction Methods......Page 541
13.5 PREPARED BED REACTORS......Page 542
13.6 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 543
14.1 OVERVIEW......Page 548
14.1.2 Treatment Trains......Page 550
14.2.1 Removal......Page 551
14.2.2 Surface Water Controls......Page 553
14.3.2 Grouting......Page 554
14.3.5 Hydrodynamic Controls......Page 555
14.4 GROUND-WATER COLLECTION......Page 556
14.4.1 Well Field Pumping......Page 557
14.4.2 Interceptor Systems......Page 559
14.4.3 Ground-Water Treatment after Removal......Page 561
14.5.1 Physical Treatment......Page 563
14.5.2 Chemical Treatment......Page 566
14.5.3 Biological Treatment......Page 567
14.6.1 Physical/Chemical Treatment......Page 569
14.6.2 Biological Treatment......Page 570
14.6.3 Permeable Reactive Treatment Walls......Page 572
14.6.4 Phytoremediation......Page 574
14.6.5 Enhanced Natural Attenuation......Page 575
14.7 GUIDE TO MAJOR REFERENCES......Page 576
Appendix A: Summary Information on Major Subsurface Characterization and Monitoring Techniques......Page 584
Appendix B: Index to ASTM Field and Laboratory Methods Possibly Pertinent to Environmental Site Characterization......Page 605
Appendix C: Tables and Figures for Estimation of Aquifer Parameters......Page 623
C.1 ESTIMATING SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY FROM GRAIN-SIZE CHARACTERISTICS......Page 626
C.2 ESTIMATING SCALE-DEPENDENT HYDRODYNAMIC DISPERSIVITY......Page 632
Appendix D: Worksheets and Checklists for Ground Water and Wellhead Protection......Page 637
E.2 GROUNDWATER FLOW......Page 666
E.3 CONTAMINANT FATE AND TRANSPORT......Page 667
E.4 ANSWERS TO PROBLEM SET......Page 668
List of Figures......Page 670
List of Tables......Page 674
Figure and Table References......Page 677