Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 - Requirement for Successful Production and Delivery of the Refined Vegetable Oils
	1.1 - Crude oil
	1.2 - Oilseeds
		1.2.1 - Maturity
		1.2.2 - Harvest Condition
			1.2.2.1 - Wet Harvest Condition
			1.2.2.2 - Dry Harvest Condition
		1.2.3 - Handling of Seeds
		1.2.4 - Seed Storage
		1.2.5 - Insect Infestation
	1.3 - Additional comments on oilseeds
	1.4 - Fruit palm
	1.5 - Groundnuts (peanuts) and tree nuts
	1.6 - Crude oil handling, storage, and transport
	1.7 - Concluding remarks
Chapter 2 - Basic Oil Chemistry
	2.1 - Composition of oil
	2.2 - Distinctions between oils and fats
	2.3 - Fatty acids in common vegetable oils
		2.3.1 - Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
	2.4 - Typical behavior of fatty acids
		2.4.1 - Unsaturated Fatty Acids
		2.4.2 - Saturated Fatty Acids
	2.5 - Objectives of proper oil processing
	2.6 - Nontriglyceride components of oils
		2.6.1 - Major Nontriglycerides
			2.6.1.1 - Phospholipids
		2.6.2 - Hydratable and Nonhydratable Phospholipids
		2.6.3 - Free Fatty Acids
		2.6.4 - Monoglycerides and Diglycerides
		2.6.5 - Minor Nontriglycerides
		2.6.6 - Tocopherols
		2.6.7 - Sterols and Sterol Esters
		2.6.8 - Volatile and Nonvolatile Compounds
		2.6.9 - Color Compounds
		2.6.10 - Trace Metals
	2.7 - Oil analysis used in vegetable oil industry and their significance
	2.8 - Significance of the analytical methods and results
		2.8.1 - Iodine Value
		2.8.2 - Free Fatty Acids
		2.8.3 - Acid Value
		2.8.4 - Peroxide Value
		2.8.5 - para Anisidine Value
		2.8.6 - Soap in Oil
		2.8.7 - Conjugated Dienes
		2.8.8 - Polar Material (TPM)
		2.8.9 - Polymerized Triglycerides
		2.8.10 - Solid Fat Index
		2.8.11 - Solid Fat Content
		2.8.12 - Fatty Acid Composition
		2.8.13 - Fatty Acid Composition
		2.8.14 - trans Fatty Acid
		2.8.15 - Refined and Bleached Color Test
		2.8.16 - Lovibond Color
		2.8.17 - Chlorophyll Pigments
		2.8.18 - Trace Metals (ICP)
		2.8.19 - Trace Metals (Atomic Absorption Method)
		2.8.20 - Phosphorus (Graphite Furnace)
		2.8.21 - Phosphorus (ICP)
		2.8.22 - Smoke Point, Flash Point, and Fire Point (Cleveland Open Cup method)
		2.8.23 - Melt Point (Capillary Tube Method)
		2.8.24 - Melt Point (Mettler Drop Point Method)
		2.8.25 - Active Oxygen Method (AOM)
		2.8.26 - Oil Stability Index (OSI)
		2.8.27 - Refining Loss
		2.8.28 - Neutral Oil Loss
			2.8.28.1 - In Refining
			2.8.28.2 - In Soap Stock
		2.8.29 - Unsaponifiable Matter
		2.8.30 - Saponification Value
	Bibliography
Chapter 3 - Crude Oil Receiving, Storage, and Handling
	3.1 - Crude oil receiving
		3.1.1 - Crude Oil Quality in Trade
	3.2 - FOSFA International (Headquarter—London, UK)
	3.3 - Membership
		3.3.1 - Trading Members
		3.3.2 - Broker Members (Full or Associate)
		3.3.3 - Nontrading Members (Full or Associate)
		3.3.4 - Superintendent Members
		3.3.5 - Analyst Members (Full or Associate)
		3.3.6 - Kindred Associations
		3.3.7 - Benefits of Membership
			3.3.7.1 - Truck or Rail Car Receipt
				3.3.7.1.1 - Checking the Truck or Rail Car
				3.3.7.1.2 - Checking Crude Oil Quality Prior to Unloading
			3.3.7.2 - Barge Receipt (NIOP, NOPA)
	3.4 - Crude oil unloading (truck or rail car)
		3.4.1 - Impact of Steam Blowing for Line Clearing
			3.4.1.1 - Avoid the Use of Air Blow or Improper Oil Discharge Into the Tank
	3.5 - Crude oil storage
		3.5.1 - Special Notes on Oil Stored at Terminals
Chapter 4 - Degumming
	4.1 - Introduction
	4.2 - Purpose of degumming
	4.3 - Hydratable phospholipids and nonhydratable phospholipids
	4.4 - Methods for degumming
		4.4.1 - Water Degumming
			4.4.1.1 - Critical Control Points in Water Degumming
			4.4.1.2 - Oil Temperature
			4.4.1.3 - Amount of Deionized Water
			4.4.1.4 - Residence Time (Contact Time) in the Hydration Tank
			4.4.1.5 - Agitation in the Hydration Tank
			4.4.1.6 - Vacuum Drying of the Oil
			4.4.1.7 - Vacuum Drying of the Gum
			4.4.1.8 - Target Water-Degummed Oil Quality
			4.4.1.9 - Target Quality of Dried Lecithin
		4.4.2 - Acid Conditioning
			4.4.2.1 - Critical Control Points in Acid Conditioning
			4.4.2.2 - Oil Temperature
			4.4.2.3 - Amount of Acid
			4.4.2.4 - Mixing of Oil and Acid
			4.4.2.5 - Conditioning Time (Retention Time)
			4.4.2.6 - Agitation in the Conditioning Tank
		4.4.3 - Acid Degumming
			4.4.3.1 - Critical Control Points
			4.4.3.2 - Target Acid Degummed Oil Quality
		4.4.4 - Deep Degumming
			4.4.4.1 - Superdegumming (Unilever Process)
				4.4.4.1.1 - Critical Control Points in Superdegumming Process
				4.4.4.1.2 - Addition of Flocculant
				4.4.4.1.3 - Self-Cleaning Centrifuge
				4.4.4.1.4 - Oil Flow Rate
				4.4.4.1.5 - Target Oil Analysis
			4.4.4.2 - Superdegumming (Alfa Laval Process)
				4.4.4.2.1 - Process Description
				4.4.4.2.2 - Target Oil Analysis
				4.4.4.2.3 - Critical Control Points
			4.4.4.3 - Combined Special Degumming and Neutralization
			4.4.4.4 - TOP Degumming
			4.4.4.5 - Organic Refining Process
			4.4.4.6 - Soft Degumming
				4.4.4.6.1 - Soft Degumming Process
				4.4.4.6.2 - Critical Control Points
		4.4.5 - Enzymatic Degumming
			4.4.5.1 - Novozymes
			4.4.5.2 - AB Enzymes GmbH (Feldbergstrasse, Darmstadt, Germany)
				4.4.5.2.1 - Results of Degumming of Crude Soybean Oil With Rohalase PL-Xtra
				4.4.5.2.2 - Results of Degumming of Crude Canola Oil With Rohalase PL-Xtra
				4.4.5.2.3 - Effect of Reaction Time
			4.4.5.3 - DSM N.V.
				4.4.5.3.1 - Degumming Crude Oil With Lecitase Ultra PLA
				4.4.5.3.2 - Critical Control Points for Degumming With Lecitase Ultra PLA
				4.4.5.3.3 - Expected Results
				4.4.5.3.4 - Degumming Crude Oil With PLC
				4.4.5.3.5 - Degumming Crude Oil with PLA and PLC (US Patent No. 8,460,905 B2 Authors: Christopher L.G. Dayton & Flavio da S...
				4.4.5.3.6 - PLC Degumming of Crude Soybean Oil, Followed By PLA1 Degumming
				4.4.5.3.7 - PLC and PLA1 Degumming of Crude Soybean Oil Together
				4.4.5.3.8 - Degumming Crude Oil With PLA and PLC Mixture [Using DSM Purifine (3G), Which is a Mixture of PLC + PLA2 + PI-PLC]
			4.4.5.4 - Concluding Remarks on Enzymatic Degumming Process
			4.4.5.5 - Real Benefit of Enzymatic Degumming Process
			4.4.5.6 - Establishing the Yield Gain From Enzymatic Degumming
Chapter 5 - Refining
	5.1 - Purpose of refining vegetable oil
		5.1.1 - Major Nontriglycerides
		5.1.2 - Minor Nontriglycerides
	5.2 - Methods of oil refining
	5.3 - Physical refining process
		5.3.1 - Critical Control Points in the Physical Refining Process
		5.3.2 - Bleached Oil Quality Parameters in the Physical Refining Process
		5.3.3 - Troubleshooting Physical Refining Process
	5.4 - Chemical refining process
		5.4.1 - Batch Refining Process
		5.4.2 - Critical Control Points in Batch Refining
			5.4.2.1 - Agitator Speed
			5.4.2.2 - Bleaching Clay
			5.4.2.3 - Refining Loss
	5.5 - Continuous chemical refining process
		5.5.1 - Critical Control Points in Continuous Chemical Refining Process
			5.5.1.1 - Analyzing Percent Neutral Oil in the Soap
			5.5.1.2 - Comments
	5.6 - Water washing refined oil
		5.6.1 - Critical Control Points in Water Washing
		5.6.2 - Importance of Oil Quality Parameters of the Refined and Water Washed Oil
		5.6.3 - Importance of Having Low Ffa, Soap, and Phosphorus in the Refined and Water Washed Oil
			5.6.3.1 - FFA
			5.6.3.2 - Soap
			5.6.3.3 - Bleaching
			5.6.3.4 - Hydrogenation
			5.6.3.5 - Phosphorus
		5.6.4 - Comments on Chemical Refining Process
		5.6.5 - Troubleshooting Chemical Refining Process
	5.7 - Refining loss
		5.7.1 - Manual Checks on the Oil Loss
	5.8 - Short mix process
		5.8.1 - Critical Control Points and Troubleshooting Short Mix Process
	5.9 - Vacuum drying
		5.9.1 - Critical Process Control Points in Vacuum Drying
	5.10 - Soap splitting for recovering the fatty acids (acidulation of soap stock)
	5.11 - Batch acidulation process
		5.11.1 - Critical Control Points in Batch Acidulation Process
	5.12 - Continuous acidulation process
	5.13 - Troubleshooting acidulation process
	5.14 - Cold chemical refining process for sunflower oil
	5.15 - Modified physical refining process
		5.15.1 - Critical Control Points in Modified Physical Refining Process
			5.15.1.1 - Moisture in the Oil
			5.15.1.2 - Amount of Caustic
	5.16 - Modified caustic refining process
	5.17 - Semiphysical refining process
Chapter 6 - Bleaching
	6.1 - Introduction
	6.2 - General operating steps in bleaching
	6.3 - Dry bleaching versus wet bleaching
	6.4 - Critical control points in dry bleaching
	6.5 - Sampling frequency in bleaching process
	6.6 - Troubleshooting dry bleaching process
	6.7 - Wet bleaching process
	6.8 - Critical control points in the wet bleaching process
	6.9 - Two-step bleaching process (use of silica hydrogel)
		6.9.1 - Benefits of Two-Step Bleaching Process (Use of Silica Hydrogel)
	6.10 - Critical control points in two-step bleaching process
	6.11 - Packed bed filtration in bleaching process
		6.11.1 - Oil Quality Checks
	6.12 - Critical control points in packed bed bleaching
	6.13 - Filters for filtering bleached oil
		6.13.1 - Plate and Frame Filters
		6.13.2 - Pressure Leaf Filters (Horizontal and Vertical Tanks)
			6.13.2.1 - Vertical Tank Vertical Pressure Leaf Filter
				6.13.2.1.1 - Advantages
				6.13.2.1.2 - Disadvantages
			6.13.2.2 - Horizontal Tank Vertical Pressure Leaf Filter
				6.13.2.2.1 - Advantages
				6.13.2.2.2 - Disadvantages
	6.14 - Bleaching agents
	6.15 - Bleaching very green canola oil
		6.15.1 - Critical Control Points
		6.15.2 - Bleaching of the Treated Oil
	Reading References
Chapter 7 - Hydrogenation
	7.1 - Introduction
	7.2 - Historical background of hydrogenation
	7.3 - Understanding the process of hydrogenation
		7.3.1 - Effects of Hydrogenation
	7.4 - Hydrogenation process
		7.4.1 - Batch Hydrogenation Reactor
		7.4.2 - Operation of a Batch Hydrogenation Reactor
		7.4.3 - Adiabatic Reaction Process
		7.4.4 - Isothermal Process
		7.4.5 - Deadend-Type Hydrogenation Reactor
		7.4.6 - Recirculating-Type Hydrogenation Reactor
		7.4.7 - Comparison Between the Deadend and the Recirculating Types of Reactors
		7.4.8 - Continuous Hydrogenation Reactor
		7.4.9 - Applicability of a Continuous Hydrogenation Reactor
	7.5 - Critical control points in the hydrogenation process
		7.5.1 - Catalyst Activity
		7.5.2 - Manifestations of a Poor-Activity Catalyst
		7.5.3 - Catalyst Selectivity
			7.5.3.1 - Reaction Conditions That Promote High Selectivity
			7.5.3.2 - Significance of Selectivity
			7.5.3.3 - Catalyst Concentration
			7.5.3.4 - Refined and Bleached Oil Quality
			7.5.3.5 - Impact of Catalyst Poisoning
			7.5.3.6 - Hydrogen Gas Quality
		7.5.4 - Hydrogen Gas Dispersion
		7.5.5 - Hydrogen Gas Venting From the Reactor
		7.5.6 - Hydrogen Gas Supply
		7.5.7 - Reaction Pressure
		7.5.8 - Reaction Temperature
		7.5.9 - Agitation
	7.6 - Catalyst filtration
	7.7 - Critical quality parameters in batch hydrogenation
	7.8 - Trans fatty acids
		7.8.1 - Manipulation of the Reactor Conditions
			7.8.1.1 - Hydrogenation Under High Pressure
			7.8.1.2 - Economic Impact of High-Pressure Reactors
		7.8.2 - Higher Cost of the Reactor
		7.8.3 - Heating Hydrogenated Oil before Filtration
		7.8.4 - Larger-Filter Area or Dirt Load Capacity
		7.8.5 - Higher Cost of Depreciation
		7.8.6 - Higher Cost of Maintenance
		7.8.7 - Increased Cost of Catalyst
		7.8.8 - Higher Oil Loss in the Spent Catalyst
		7.8.9 - Cost of Spent Catalyst Disposal
			7.8.9.1 - Catalyst
			7.8.9.2 - Summary of All-Cost Elements for High-Pressure Hydrogenation Process
			7.8.9.3 - Use of Platinum or Other Precious Metal Catalysts
			7.8.9.4 - Economics of Using Platinum Catalyst
			7.8.9.5 - The Impact of Reheating of the Oil for Filtration
	7.9 - Sources of hydrogenation catalysts
	7.10 - Selection of hydrogenation catalyst
		7.10.1 - Catalyst Activity
		7.10.2 - Selectivity
		7.10.3 - Filterability
		7.10.4 - Physical Integrity
		7.10.5 - Cost
	7.11 - Commercially available nickel catalysts
	7.12 - Troubleshooting the hydrogenation process
	7.13 - Heat recovery in hydrogenation
	Reading references
Chapter 8 - Deodorization
	8.1 - Introduction
	8.2 - Purpose of deodorization
	8.3 - Description of the deodorization process
	8.4 - Operating principles of deodorization
		8.4.1 - Interpretation of the Previous Formula
	8.5 - Critical control points for the deodorizing process
		8.5.1 - Incoming Oil Quality
		8.5.2 - Deaeration of the Oil Before Heating It for Deodorization
		8.5.3 - Heating the Oil for Deodorization
		8.5.4 - Operating Pressure (Vacuum)
		8.5.5 - Operating Temperature
		8.5.6 - Amount of Stripping Steam
		8.5.7 - Batch Size or Flow Rate
		8.5.8 - Citric Acid Addition
		8.5.9 - Cooling Deodorized Oil
	8.6 - Deodorized oil quality
		8.6.1 - Physical Attributes
		8.6.2 - Chemical Attributes
		8.6.3 - Organoleptic Attribute—AOCS Method Cg-2-83 (09)
		8.6.4 - Significance of the Deodorized Oil Quality Standards
	8.7 - Types of deodorizers
		8.7.1 - Batch Deodorizers
		8.7.2 - Typical Operating Steps in a Batch Deodorizer
		8.7.3 - Vacuum Sampler
		8.7.4 - Semicontinuous Deodorizer
		8.7.5 - Advantages of Semicontinuous Deodorizers
		8.7.6 - Continuous Deodorizers
		8.7.7 - Advantages of Continuous Deodorizers
		8.7.8 - Disadvantages
		8.7.9 - Residence Time Distribution in a Continuous Deodorizer
	8.8 - Vacuum system for deodorizer
	8.9 - Periodic cleaning of the deodorizer
		8.9.1 - Batch Deodorizer
		8.9.2 - Semicontinuous Deodorizer
		8.9.3 - Continuous Deodorizer
Chapter 9 - Finished Product Storage and Handling
	9.1 - Introduction
	9.2 - Transfer and storage of deodorized products in tanks
	9.3 - Deodorized oil storage tank
		9.3.1 - Components of the Deodorized Oil Storage Tank
		9.3.2 - Nitrogen Blanketing
			9.3.2.1 - Pressure Sensor
			9.3.2.2 - Vacuum Vent Valve
			9.3.2.3 - Rupture Disc
			9.3.2.4 - Checking Head Space Oxygen
			9.3.2.5 - Nitrogen Sparger
		9.3.3 - Temperature Indicator Controller
		9.3.4 - Agitator
	9.4 - Loading finished oils in trucks
	9.5 - Unloading finished oil from tank trucks
	9.6 - Packaged products stored in the warehouse
	9.7 - Maintaining product quality in the warehouse
		9.7.1 - Consumer Products
		9.7.2 - Industrial Products
	9.8 - Shipping of packaged products
Chapter 10 - Fundamentals of Fat Crystallization Related to Making Plastic and Pourable Shortenings
	10.1 - Introduction
	10.2 - Fat polymorphism
		10.2.1 - Alpha Crystals
		10.2.2 - Beta Prime Crystals
		10.2.3 - Beta Crystals
		10.2.4 - Melting Points of the Three Polymorphic Phases
		10.2.5 - Crystal Packing Pattern of Alpha, Beta Prime, and Beta Crystals
	10.3 - Triglyceride structure
		10.3.1 - Fatty Acid Distribution in Trisaturated Triglycerides and Their Polymorphic Properties
		10.3.2 - Summary of the Rule of Thumb on the Polymorphic Behavior of Triglyceride Molecules
	10.4 - Fat crystallization
		10.4.1 - Sequence of Events in Controlled Crystallization Process
		10.4.2 - Typical Crystallization Process for Making Shortening
		10.4.3 - Process Description
		10.4.4 - What Happens to the Product?
		10.4.5 - Primary and Secondary Crystal Bonds
		10.4.6 - Primary Bonds
		10.4.7 - Secondary Bonds
		10.4.8 - Utilizing the Properties of the Primary and the Secondary Bonds
		10.4.9 - Factors Determining the Physical Properties of Crystallized Fats
		10.4.10 - General Rules of Fat Crystallization
		10.4.11 - Critical Process Variables for Fat Crystallization
		10.4.12 - Discussions on the Crystallization Process
		10.4.13 - Establishment of Crystal Matrix
		10.4.14 - Purpose of Tempering
		10.4.15 - Comments on Tempering of Shortening Made and Used at a Large Bakery
		10.4.16 - Tempering Procedure
		10.4.17 - Benefits of Tempering Shortening
			10.4.17.1 - Sample Tempered at 70°F (21.1°C)
			10.4.17.2 - Sample Tempered at 90°F (32.2°C)
	10.5 - Characterization of fat crystals
		10.5.1 - Hardness
		10.5.2 - Consistency (Smoothness/Graininess)
		10.5.3 - Plasticity/Spreadability
		10.5.4 - Structure
		10.5.5 - Pourability
		10.5.6 - Polymorphic Phase
	10.6 - Palm oil in solid shortening
		10.6.1 - Improving Crystallization Rate in Palm Oil Shortening
	10.7 - Issues with the interesterified products
	10.8 - Very high–hard stock content
	10.9 - Pourable liquid shortening
		10.9.1 - Product Description
		10.9.2 - Special Properties
		10.9.3 - Formulation
		10.9.4 - Polymorphic Phase
		10.9.5 - Processing Steps for Making Pourable Liquid Shortening
		10.9.6 - Critical Control Points
			10.9.6.1 - Formulation of the Mix
			10.9.6.2 - Deaeration
			10.9.6.3 - Freezer (Unit A) Outlet Temperature
			10.9.6.4 - Tempering Temperature
			10.9.6.5 - Tempering Time
			10.9.6.6 - Agitation in the Tempering Tank
			10.9.6.7 - Hot Water Temperature in the Jacket
			10.9.6.8 - Storage Tank Design
			10.9.6.9 - Storage of Pourable Shortening in the Warehouse
			10.9.6.10 - Shipping (Transit)
		10.9.7 - Fluidity of the Shortening
	Reading References
Chapter 11 - Winterization and Fractionation of Selected Vegetable Oils
	11.1 - Introduction
	11.2 - Winterization of sunflower seed oil
		11.2.1 - Cold Test Versus the Wax Content of Sunflower Oil
	11.3 - Critical process variables for winterization of sunflower oil
	11.4 - Troubleshooting
	11.5 - Winterization of soybean oil
		11.5.1 - Process Description
		11.5.2 - Filtration
	11.6 - Fractionation of palm oil
		11.6.1 - Suitability of Palm Oil for Fractionation
		11.6.2 - Methods for Fractionation
	11.7 - Dry fractionation
		11.7.1 - Precrystallizer
		11.7.2 - Crystallizer
		11.7.3 - Filtration
		11.7.4 - Critical Control Points in Dry Fractionation
		11.7.5 - Initial Oil Temperature
		11.7.6 - Precrystallization
		11.7.7 - Cooling Rate
		11.7.8 - Holding Time in the Crystallizer
		11.7.9 - Agitation in the Crystallizer
		11.7.10 - Final Crystallizer Temperature
		11.7.11 - Filtration
	11.8 - Troubleshooting dry fractionation
	11.9 - Multiple dry fractionation
		11.9.1 - Benefits of Multiple Dry Fractionation of Palm Oil
	11.10 - Wet fractionation with detergent (Lanza process)
	11.11 - Solvent fractionation process
		11.11.1 - Critical Control Points
		11.11.2 - Comparison Between the Three Methods of Fractionation
	Reading references
Chapter 12 - Insight to Oil Quality Management
	12.1 - Introduction
	12.2 - Managing oil quality
		12.2.1 - Step #1: Have a Clear Product Objective
		12.2.2 - Step #2: Have the Right Capability in Place
		12.2.3 - Step#3: Measurements of Quality and Setting Standards
		12.2.4 - Step #4: Measurement of Performance
		12.2.5 - Step #5: Understand the Behavior of the Oil and Learn How to Protect It From Degradation
	12.3 - Modes of oil decomposition
	12.4 - Areas in oil quality management
	12.5 - Summary of oil quality standards
	Reading references
Chapter 13 - Trans Fat Alternatives and Challenges
	13.1 - Introduction
		13.1.1 - Pioneering by Europe
		13.1.2 - Trans Fat Regulation in the United States
		13.1.3 - Trans Fat in the United States Diet and the Sources
		13.1.4 - Subsequent Developments in FDA Regulations on Trans Fat
		13.1.5 - Trans Fat Regulation in Canada
	13.2 - Nutritional labeling regulation
		13.2.1 - Trans Fat Claims
		13.2.2 - Nutrition Labeling Regulation
			13.2.2.1 - Trans Fat Claims
		13.2.3 - For 30-g Serving
		13.2.4 - For 10-mL (9.2-g) Serving
		13.2.5 - Influence of Trans Fats
	13.3 - Source of trans fatty acids
	13.4 - Technical alternatives available today
		13.4.1 - Technical Solutions for Trans Fat Reduction
		13.4.2 - Hydrogenation Under Special Conditions
		13.4.3 - Use of Platinum Catalyst
		13.4.4 - Interesterification
			13.4.4.1 - Benefits of Interesterification
		13.4.5 - Modified Composition Oils
		13.4.6 - Use of Pourable Shortening
	13.5 - Challenges
		13.5.1 - Challenge #1: Getting Stable Liquid Oil in an Adequate Supply
		13.5.2 - Challenge #2: Supplies of Modified Composition Seed Oils
		13.5.3 - Challenge #3: Consumer Advocates in the United States
		13.5.4 - Challenge #4: Use of Regular Soybean Oil is Reducing Shelf Life Stability of the Transesterified Shortening in Som...
		13.5.5 - Challenge #5: Economic Challenge
	13.6 - Interesterification Process
		13.6.1 - Chemical Process
		13.6.2 - Enzymatic Process
	13.7 - Chemical interesterification process
		13.7.1 - Description of a Chemical Interesterification Process
		13.7.2 - Reaction Mixture
		13.7.3 - Reaction Steps
		13.7.4 - Critical Control Points in the Chemical Interesterification Process
			13.7.4.1 - Oil Quality
			13.7.4.2 - FFA
			13.7.4.3 - PV
			13.7.4.4 - Moisture
			13.7.4.5 - Drying/Deaeration of the Oil Before Reaction
			13.7.4.6 - Amount of Catalyst
			13.7.4.7 - Agitation During Drying and the Reaction
			13.7.4.8 - Reaction Time
			13.7.4.9 - Neutralization of the Catalyst
			13.7.4.10 - Separation of the Aqueous and the Oil Phase
			13.7.4.11 - Bleaching
			13.7.4.12 - Deodorization and Storage of the Final Product
		13.7.5 - Questions Related to Chemical Interesterification
			13.7.5.1 - How to Determine the Reaction End Point
			13.7.5.2 - Stability of the Chemically Interesterified Product
			13.7.5.3 - Losses in the Process
			13.7.5.4 - Troubleshooting Random Interesterification Process
	13.8 - Enzymatic Interesterification Process
		13.8.1 - Introduction
		13.8.2 - Catalyst
		13.8.3 - Purpose of Immobilization of the Enzyme
		13.8.4 - Reaction Steps in Enzymatic Interesterification Process
		13.8.5 - Pretreatment
		13.8.6 - Lipase Interesterification
		13.8.7 - Batch Process
		13.8.8 - Continuous Multiple Fixed Bed Process
		13.8.9 - Single Fixed Bed Continuous Process
		13.8.10 - Enzyme Activity
		13.8.11 - Productivity
		13.8.12 - Deodorization
	13.9 - Comparison between the chemical and the enzymatic interesterification processes
	Reading references
Chapter 14 - Familiarization With Process Equipment
	14.1 - Introduction
	14.2 - Processing equipment and accessories
		14.2.1 - Process Equipment
		14.2.2 - Process Accessories
		14.2.3 - Process Instruments
		14.2.4 - Process Equipment
			14.2.4.1 - Tanks
			14.2.4.2 - Crude Oil Storage Tanks
			14.2.4.3 - Tanks for Hydrogenated Stocks
		14.2.5 - Comments on the Atmospheric Vent
			14.2.5.1 - Tanks for Deodorized Stocks
		14.2.6 - Designs for Common Oil Storage Tanks
			14.2.6.1 - Flat Bottom Tanks
				14.2.6.1.1 - Advantage
				14.2.6.1.2 - Disadvantage
			14.2.6.2 - Large Sloped Bottom Tanks for Crude Oil Storage
			14.2.6.3 - Cone Bottom Tanks
				14.2.6.3.1 - Advantage
				14.2.6.3.2 - Disadvantage
			14.2.6.4 - Dish Bottom Tanks
			14.2.6.5 - Jacketed Tanks
		14.2.7 - Process Supervisor’s Responsibility Regarding the Tanks
			14.2.7.1 - Centrifuges
			14.2.7.2 - Converters
			14.2.7.3 - Deodorizers
			14.2.7.4 - Vacuum Dryer
			14.2.7.5 - Vacuum Bleacher
			14.2.7.6 - Filters
			14.2.7.7 - Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.8 - Types of Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.9 - Coaxial Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.10 - Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.11 - Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.12 - Spiral Heat Exchanger
			14.2.7.13 - Proper Installation Guidelines for Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.14 - Fouling of Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.15 - Frequency of Cleaning Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.16 - Troubleshooting Heat Exchangers
			14.2.7.17 - Piping
				14.2.7.17.1 - Oil Transfer Lines
				14.2.7.17.2 - Steam Supply Lines
				14.2.7.17.3 - Condensate Return Lines
				14.2.7.17.4 - Compressed Air Supply Lines
				14.2.7.17.5 - Nitrogen Supply Line
				14.2.7.17.6 - Hydrogen Gas Supply Line
				14.2.7.17.7 - Steam Tracing
				14.2.7.17.8 - Caustic Lines
				14.2.7.17.9 - Citric Acid
				14.2.7.17.10 - Water Lines (Hot or Cold)
				14.2.7.17.11 - Concentrated Sulfuric Acid (Used in Acidulation of Soap Stock)
		14.2.8 - Process Accessories
			14.2.8.1 - Vacuum Ejectors
			14.2.8.2 - Noncondensing Versus Condensing Type of Vacuum Ejectors
			14.2.8.3 - Direct Contact Condensing Versus Nondirect Contact Condensing Type Steam Ejectors
				14.2.8.3.1 - Direct Contact Condensing Steam Ejector
				14.2.8.3.2 - Nondirect Contact Condensing Type Steam Ejector
		14.2.9 - Troubleshooting Ejectors
		14.2.10 - Freeze-Condensing Vacuum System
			14.2.10.1 - Advantages
			14.2.10.2 - Disadvantage
		14.2.11 - Agitators
			14.2.11.1 - Examples
				14.2.11.1.1 - Category #1
				14.2.11.1.2 - Category #2
				14.2.11.1.3 - Category #3
				14.2.11.1.4 - Category #4
		14.2.12 - Types of Mixers Used in an Oil Processing Plant
		14.2.13 - Design Considerations for Selecting an Agitator
			14.2.13.1 - Tank Information
			14.2.13.2 - Property of the Liquid
			14.2.13.3 - Service Application
		14.2.14 - Pumps
			14.2.14.1 - Guidelines for Proper Pump Installation
			14.2.14.2 - Guidelines for Proper Pump Operation
		14.2.15 - Valves
		14.2.16 - Cooling Towers
			14.2.16.1 - Application
			14.2.16.2 - Mechanism of Cooling Water in a Cooling Tower
			14.2.16.3 - Cooling Tower Design
			14.2.16.4 - Efficiency of Cooling the Water
			14.2.16.5 - Inadequate Cooling of the Water
			14.2.16.6 - Consequence of Inadequate Water Cooling at the Cooling Tower
			14.2.16.7 - Tower Cleaning Frequency
		14.2.17 - Motors, Starters, Switches, Fans, and Blowers
		14.2.18 - Compressors
			14.2.18.1 - Special Notes on Compressors
		14.2.19 - Air Dryers
		14.2.20 - Steam Tracing
			14.2.20.1 - Purpose of Steam Tracing
			14.2.20.2 - Basics of Steam Tracing
		14.2.21 - Steam Traps
			14.2.21.1 - Types of Steam Traps
			14.2.21.2 - Managing Steam Traps
			14.2.21.3 - Proper Steam Trap Installation
		14.2.22 - Steam Purifier
		14.2.23 - Seals
		14.2.24 - Process Instruments
Chapter 15 - Loss Management
	15.1 - Introduction
	15.2 - Definition of Losses
		15.2.1 - Degrading and Variations
			15.2.1.1 - Degrading
			15.2.1.2 - Variations
	15.3 - Factors Contributing to High Plant Losses in Degrading and Variations
	15.4 - Elements of Good Loss Management
	15.5 - Guidelines for Managing D&V
		15.5.1 - Step 1: Identify all Material Flows at the Plant
		15.5.2 - Step 2: Identify Key Loss Points
			15.5.2.1 - Bulk Receipts of Refined Oils
			15.5.2.2 - Finished Product Variations
		15.5.3 - Return from Sales
		15.5.4 - Dump
		15.5.5 - Step 3: Determine the Causes for the Losses at Each Location
		15.5.6 - Step 4: Define Solutions to Prevent Losses
		15.5.7 - Step 5: Define Goals
		15.5.8 - Step 6: Set Priorities for the Improvement Activity
		15.5.9 - Step 7: Define Action Steps, Target Dates, Milestones, the Success Criteria, and the Method Used for Measuring Pro...
	15.6 - Managing Plant Losses
		15.6.1 - Known Losses
		15.6.2 - Unknown Losses
		15.6.3 - Key for Successful Loss Management
	15.7 - Final Comments on Loss Management
	15.8 - Samples of Forms Helpful for Tracking Variations
Chapter 16 - Plant Safety Procedures
	16.1 - Introduction
	16.2 - Plant safety
		16.2.1 - General
	16.3 - Safety agencies
		16.3.1 - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
		16.3.2 - American National Standards Institute
		16.3.3 - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
		16.3.4 - The National Fire Protection Association
		16.3.5 - Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
	16.4 - Areas of safety training required at the plant
		16.4.1 - Fire and Explosion Safety
			16.4.1.1 - Types of Fires Encountered
				16.4.1.1.1 - Class A Fire
				16.4.1.1.2 - Class B Fire
				16.4.1.1.3 - Class C Fire
				16.4.1.1.4 - Class D Fire
				16.4.1.1.5 - Class K Fire
		16.4.2 - Selection of Fire Extinguishers
		16.4.3 - Hazards of Dry Chemical Extinguishers
		16.4.4 - Compressed Gas Safety
		16.4.5 - Recommended Procedure for the Preparation for Welding or Hot Work (Using Gas Torch for Metal Cutting)
		16.4.6 - Chemical Safety
			16.4.6.1 - Corrosive
		16.4.7 - Significance of the Color Code and the Numbers for the Chemicals and the Degree of Hazard
		16.4.8 - Improper Storage of Solvents
		16.4.9 - Electrical Safety
			16.4.9.1 - Electrical Shock
				16.4.9.1.1 - Fuses
				16.4.9.1.2 - Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter
				16.4.9.1.3 - Lockout/Tagout
		16.4.10 - Confined Space Entry Procedure
			16.4.10.1 - Definition of a Confined Space
			16.4.10.2 - Need for an Entry Procedure for a Confined Space
			16.4.10.3 - What is a Tank Entry Procedure?
			16.4.10.4 - Who Should Be Familiar With the Procedure?
			16.4.10.5 - Why Must It Be Followed?
			16.4.10.6 - Equipment Needed for Tank Entry
			16.4.10.7 - Signs to Be Displayed on a Nitrogen-Blanketed Tank
			16.4.10.8 - Preparation for Tank Entry
		16.4.11 - The Tank Entry Permit Must be Filled out and Signed by two Persons
			16.4.11.1 - Tank Entry Permit
		16.4.12 - Entering the Tank
	16.5 - Special notes
Chapter 17 - Regulatory Agencies and Their Roles in a Vegetable Oil Plant
	17.1 - Introduction
	17.2 - Agencies Overseeing Food Industry
		17.2.1 - United States
		17.2.2 - Europe
			17.2.2.1 - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
			17.2.2.2 - Role of OSHA in an Oil Plant
	17.3 - Environmental Protection Agency
		17.3.1 - Role of EPA in a Food Plant
	17.4 - National Fire Protection Association
		17.4.1 - NFPA’s Role in an Oil Plant
	17.5 - US Department Of Agriculture
	17.6 - Role Of USDA at an Edible Oil Plant
	17.7 - US Food and Drug Administration
	17.8 - Rabbinical Assembly
		17.8.1 - Meat
		17.8.2 - Dairy
		17.8.3 - Pareve
	17.9 - Role Of Rabbinical Assembly in an Oil Plant
	17.10 - National Institute Of Oilseed Products
	17.11 - National Oilseed Processors Association
	17.12 - Federation of Oils, Seeds and Fats Associations
	17.13 - FEDIOL
	17.14 - European Food Safety Authority
	17.15 - Food Safety Authority
	17.16 - Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed
Index