Power Systems

Power Systems, Third Edition......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 10
Editor......Page 12
Contributors......Page 14
I Power System Analysis and Simulation......Page 16
1 The Per-Unit System......Page 18
1.1 Impact on Transformers......Page 21
1.2 Per-Unit Scaling Extended to Three-Phase Systems......Page 25
1.3 Per-Unit Scaling Extended to a General Three-Phase System......Page 29
2.1 Introduction......Page 32
2.2 Discussion of Per Unit Quantities......Page 34
2.4 “a” Operator......Page 37
2.5 Phase and Sequence Relationships......Page 38
2.7 Sample Three-Phase Fault Calculation: Fault at Bus T2H......Page 41
2.9 Negative Sequence Networks......Page 42
2.10 Sample Phase to Phase Fault Calculation: Fault at Bus T2L......Page 43
2.11 Zero Sequence Networks......Page 44
2.12 Sample Phase to Ground Fault Calculation: Fault at Bus T2L......Page 47
3.2 Power Flow Problem......Page 50
3.4 Formulation of Power Flow Equations......Page 52
3.5 P–V Buses......Page 55
3.7.1 Basic Power Flow Equations......Page 56
3.8.1 Newton–Raphson Method......Page 57
3.8.2 Fast Decoupled Power Flow Solution......Page 58
3.9 Component Power Flows......Page 59
Further Information......Page 60
4 Fault Analysis in Power Systems......Page 62
4.1 Simplifications in the System Model......Page 63
4.2.1 The Balanced Three-Phase Fault......Page 65
4.2.2 The Single Phase-to-Ground Fault......Page 66
4.2.3 The Phase-to-Phase Fault......Page 67
4.3 An Example Fault Study......Page 68
4.3.1 Balanced Three-Phase Fault......Page 70
4.3.2 Single Phase-to-Ground Fault......Page 71
4.4 Further Considerations......Page 76
4.5 Summary......Page 77
References......Page 78
Further Information......Page 79
5.1 Power Flow......Page 80
5.1.1 Admittance Matrix......Page 81
5.1.2 Newton–Raphson Method......Page 84
5.2 Optimal Power Flow......Page 92
5.2.1 Steepest Descent Algorithm......Page 94
5.2.2 Limitations on Independent Variables......Page 100
5.2.3 Limitations on Dependent Variables......Page 101
5.3 State Estimation......Page 104
II Power System Transients......Page 112
6.1 Introduction......Page 114
6.2.1 First Strokes......Page 115
6.2.2 Subsequent Strokes......Page 116
6.3.1 Ground Flash Density......Page 117
6.3.2 Current Peak Value......Page 118
6.3.3 Correlation between Current and Other Parameters of Lightning......Page 119
6.4 Incidence of Lightning to Power Lines......Page 120
References......Page 121
7 Overvoltages Caused by Direct Lightning Strokes......Page 124
7.1 Direct Strokes to Unshielded Lines......Page 125
7.2 Direct Strokes to Shielded Lines......Page 127
7.2.1 Shielding Design......Page 130
7.3 Significant Parameters......Page 132
7.4.1 Unshielded Lines......Page 134
7.4.2 Shielded Lines......Page 137
7.5 Effects of Induction for Direct Strokes......Page 138
7.6 Ground Impedance and Corona under Lightning......Page 139
References......Page 140
8 Overvoltages Caused by Indirect Lightning Strokes......Page 142
8.1 Inducing Voltage......Page 144
8.2 Induced Voltage......Page 145
8.3 Green’s Function......Page 146
8.4.1 Evaluation of Green’s Function......Page 147
8.4.2 Induced Voltage Caused by Return-Stroke Current of Arbitrary Waveshape......Page 148
8.5 Induced Voltages on Multiconductor Lines......Page 151
8.6 Effects of Shield Wires on Induced Voltages......Page 153
8.7 Stochastic Characteristics of Lightning Strokes......Page 154
8.8 Estimation of Outage Rates Caused by Nearby Lightning Strokes......Page 155
8.A Appendix A: Voltage Induced by Linearly Rising and Falling Return-Stroke Current......Page 158
References......Page 159
9.1 Transmission Line Switching Operations......Page 162
9.4 Shunt Reactor Applications......Page 166
References......Page 167
10 Very Fast Transients......Page 168
10.1 Origin of VFT in GIS......Page 169
10.2.1 Internal Transients......Page 170
10.2.2.1 Transient Enclosure Voltages......Page 171
10.2.2.3 Transient Electromagnetic Fields......Page 173
10.3.1.1 Bus Ducts......Page 174
10.3.1.4 Spark Dynamics......Page 175
10.3.1.7 Three-Phase Models......Page 176
10.3.2.1 Enclosures......Page 177
10.3.2.2 Ground Straps......Page 178
10.3.3 Testing and Simulation......Page 179
10.3.5 Validation......Page 181
10.4.3 Disconnectors and Breakers......Page 183
References......Page 184
11.1 General Concepts......Page 190
11.2 Material Properties......Page 191
11.3 Electrode Dimensions......Page 192
11.5 Initial Transient Response from Capacitance......Page 195
11.7 Ground Electrode Impedance: Wire over Imperfect Ground......Page 197
11.8 Analytical Treatment of Complex Electrode Shapes......Page 198
11.9 Numerical Treatment of Complex Electrode Shapes......Page 199
11.10 Treatment of Multilayer Soil Effects......Page 200
11.11 Layer of Finite Thickness over Insulator......Page 201
11.12 Treatment of Soil Ionization......Page 202
11.13 Design Process......Page 203
11.A Appendix A: Relevant IEEE and IEC Standards in Lightning and Grounding......Page 204
References......Page 207
12.1 Fault Interruption Process......Page 210
12.2 Analysis Principles......Page 211
12.3 TRV for Transformer-Fed Faults......Page 214
12.4 TRV for Capacitor Bank Switch Opening......Page 215
12.5 TRV for Line-Fed Faults......Page 219
12.6 TRV for Current-Limiting Reactor Faults......Page 222
12.7 Switchgear Tests and Standards......Page 223
12.8 TRV Mitigation......Page 226
References......Page 227
13.1 Arrester Types and Auxiliary Equipment......Page 230
13.2 Ratings and Tests......Page 232
13.3 Selection by TOV......Page 235
13.4 Selection by Energy Rating......Page 236
13.5 Arrester Modeling......Page 238
13.6 Applications......Page 241
References......Page 245
14.1 Insulation Coordination......Page 248
14.3 Probability of Flashover......Page 249
14.4.1 Voltage Waveshape......Page 250
14.4.4 Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on Air Insulation......Page 252
14.4.6 Insulator Contamination......Page 253
14.4.7 Application of Surge Arresters......Page 255
14.4.8 Examples of Surge Arrester Application (Nonself-Restoring Insulation)......Page 256
References......Page 258
III Power System Planning (Reliability)......Page 260
15.1 Introduction......Page 262
15.2.1 Preparing for Competition......Page 263
15.2.2 Present View of Overall Problem......Page 264
15.2.3 Economic Evolution......Page 266
15.2.5 Fully Evolved Marketplace......Page 267
15.2.6 Computerized Auction Market Structure......Page 270
15.2.7 Capacity Expansion Problem Definition......Page 272
15.3 Regulated Environment......Page 273
15.4 Other Sections on Planning......Page 275
References......Page 276
16.1 Artificial Neural Networks......Page 282
16.2 Short-Term Load Forecasting......Page 284
16.2.1 ANNSTLF Architecture......Page 285
16.2.2 Humidity and Wind Speed......Page 286
16.2.3 Holidays and Special Days......Page 287
16.2.4 Performance......Page 288
16.3 Short-Term Price Forecasting......Page 290
References......Page 292
17.1 Bulk Power System Reliability and Supply Point Reliability......Page 294
17.1.1 Bulk Transmission Systems Reliability Is Evaluated Using Deterministic Reliability Criteria......Page 295
17.1.2 Supply Point Reliability Is Evaluated Using Either Deterministic or Probabilistic Reliability Criteria......Page 296
17.2.1 Reliability Measures—Reliability Indices......Page 297
17.2.3 Cost of Interruptions to Consumers......Page 298
17.2.4 Outage Models......Page 299
17.3.1 Contingency Enumeration Approach......Page 301
17.4.1 Calculation of the Reliability of Electric Power Supply to a Major Industrial Complex......Page 303
17.4.2 Local Area Reliability......Page 305
References......Page 307
18 Power System Planning......Page 310
18.2 Arenas......Page 311
18.3.1 Options......Page 312
18.3.2 Uncertainties......Page 313
18.3.3 Attributes......Page 316
18.4.1 Setting Standards or Criteria......Page 317
18.4.5 Least-Cost Planning......Page 318
18.4.6 Making Choices......Page 319
References......Page 321
19 Power System Reliability......Page 322
19.1 NERC Regions......Page 323
19.2 System Adequacy Assessment......Page 324
19.3 System Security Assessment......Page 325
19.4 Probabilistic Security Assessment......Page 326
19.5 Distribution System Reliability......Page 327
19.7 Distribution Reliability Indices......Page 328
19.8 Storms and Major Events......Page 330
19.9 Component Reliability Data......Page 331
19.10 Utility Reliability Problems......Page 332
19.11 Reliability Economics......Page 335
References......Page 336
20.1 Uncertainty in Power System Engineering......Page 338
20.2 Deterministic Power Flow Studies......Page 339
20.3 Monte Carlo Power Flow Studies......Page 340
20.4 Analytical Probabilistic Power Flow Studies......Page 341
20.5 Applications for Available Transfer Capability (ATC)......Page 343
20.7 An Example of Expected Financial Income from Transmission Tariffs......Page 345
20.8 Wind Energy Resources and Stochastic Power Flow Studies......Page 347
References......Page 348
21.1 Electricity Pricing Overview......Page 350
21.2 Electric Cost-of-Service Study......Page 352
21.3 Cost-of-Service Study Framework......Page 353
21.4 Minimum Distribution System Analysis......Page 356
21.5 Analysis of Load Diversity......Page 359
21.6 Analysis of Demand and Energy Losses......Page 363
21.6.1 Methodology for Evaluating Losses......Page 367
21.8 Cost Curve Development......Page 370
21.8.1 Coincidence Factor–Load Factor Relationship......Page 371
21.8.2 Allocation of Unit Demand Cost Components......Page 372
21.9 Rate Design Methodology......Page 375
Reference......Page 378
22.1 Introduction......Page 380
22.2 Accounting......Page 381
22.2.2 Amortization and Depreciation......Page 384
22.2.3 Financial Statements......Page 385
22.3.1 Time Value of Money......Page 386
22.4.1 Diversification......Page 388
22.4.2 Portfolio Theory......Page 389
22.4.3 Capital Asset Pricing Model......Page 390
22.4.4 Financial Options......Page 391
22.5 Financial Ratios......Page 393
22.6 Asset Management......Page 395
IV Power Electronics......Page 398
23.1 Thyristor and Triac......Page 400
23.2 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor......Page 402
23.4 Power Bipolar Junction Transistor......Page 403
23.5 Power MOSFET......Page 404
23.6 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor......Page 405
23.7 Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor......Page 407
Further Information......Page 408
24.1 Introduction......Page 410
24.2.1 Mechanics of Diode Conduction [4]......Page 411
24.2.2 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Circuits......Page 412
24.2.3 Full-Wave Rectifiers [1]......Page 414
24.2.4 Three-Phase Rectifiers (Half Wave and Full Wave)......Page 418
24.2.5 Average Output Voltage......Page 420
24.2.7 Why VFDs Generate Harmonics?......Page 421
24.2.8 Harmonic Limit Calculations Based on IEEE 519-1992 [5]......Page 422
24.2.10.1 Three-Phase Line Reactors......Page 424
24.2.10.2 DC Link Choke......Page 426
24.2.10.3 AC Reactor versus DC Link Choke......Page 427
24.2.11.2 Shunt Passive Filter......Page 429
24.2.11.3 Low-Pass Broadband Filter......Page 430
24.2.12.1 12-Pulse Techniques......Page 431
24.2.12.2 18-Pulse Techniques......Page 437
24.2.12.3 Summary of Drawbacks with Autotransformers......Page 440
24.2.12.5 Active Harmonic Compensation......Page 441
24.3 Controlled Rectifiers......Page 442
24.3.1 Gate Circuit Requirements......Page 445
24.3.2 Single-Phase H-Bridge Rectifier Circuits with Thyristors [1–3]......Page 446
24.3.3 Three-Phase Controlled AC to DC Rectifier Systems......Page 449
24.3.5 Use of Thyristors for Soft Charging DC Bus of Voltage Source Inverters......Page 451
24.3.6 HVDC Transmission Systems......Page 454
24.3.7 Power System Interaction with Three-Phase Thyristor AC to DC Rectifier Systems......Page 455
References......Page 457
25.1 Introduction and Overview......Page 458
25.3 Single-Phase Inverters......Page 459
25.4 Three-Phase Inverters......Page 460
25.5 Multilevel Inverters......Page 464
25.6 Line-Commutated Inverters......Page 468
References......Page 469
26 Active Filters for Power Conditioning......Page 472
26.1 Harmonic-Producing Loads......Page 473
26.2 Theoretical Approach to Active Filters for Power Conditioning......Page 474
26.3.1 System Configuration......Page 481
26.3.2 Operating Principle......Page 482
26.3.3 Control Circuit......Page 483
26.3.4 Experimental Results......Page 484
26.4.1 Present Status and Future Trends......Page 486
26.4.3 The 48-MVA Shunt Active Filter for Compensation of Voltage Impact Drop, Variation, and Imbalance......Page 487
References......Page 489
27.1 Introduction......Page 492
27.2.1 Shunt Compensation Principles......Page 494
27.2.2 Traditional Shunt Compensation......Page 495
27.2.3 Self-Commutated Shunt Compensators......Page 501
27.2.3.1 Principles of Operation......Page 502
27.2.3.2 Multilevel Converters......Page 503
27.2.3.3 STATCOM Design Principles......Page 506
27.2.4 Comparison between Thyristorized and Self-Commutated Compensators......Page 509
27.2.5 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage......Page 511
27.3.1 Series Compensation Principles......Page 512
27.3.2 Static Synchronous Series Compensator......Page 513
27.3.2.1 Compensation Strategies......Page 514
27.3.2.2 Reference Signal Generation......Page 517
27.3.2.3 Power Circuit Design......Page 520
27.4.1 Unified Power Flow Controller......Page 523
27.4.2 Interline Power Flow Controller......Page 524
27.4.3 Unified Power Quality Conditioner......Page 525
27.5 Facts Controller’s Applications......Page 526
27.5.2 Channel Tunnel Rail Link [31]......Page 527
27.5.3 STATCOM “Voltage Controller” ±100 MVAr STATCOM at Sullivan Substation (TVA) in Northeastern Tennessee [25]......Page 528
27.5.4 Unified Power Flow Controller “All Transmission Parameters Controller”: ±160 MVA Shunt and ±160 MVA Series at Inez Substation (AEP), Northeastern Virginia, USA [25]......Page 529
27.5.5 Convertible Static Compensator in the New York 345 kV Transmission System [35]......Page 530
27.6 Conclusions......Page 531
References......Page 532
28.2.1 Basic Concepts of Wind Power Systems......Page 534
28.2.2.1 Power Electronics for Wind Turbine Type 1......Page 535
28.2.2.2 Power Electronics for Wind Turbine Type 2......Page 536
28.2.2.3 Power Electronics for Wind Turbine Type 3......Page 538
28.2.3 Control of Power Electronic Converters for Variable-Speed Wind Turbine Generators......Page 542
28.2.3.1 Control of Power Electronic Converters for Wind Turbine Type 3......Page 544
28.2.3.2 Control of Power Electronic Converters for Wind Turbine Type 4......Page 548
28.2.4 Power Electronics for Wind Power Plants......Page 549
28.3.1 Basic Concepts of PV Power Systems......Page 551
28.3.2 Topologies of PV Power Systems......Page 552
28.3.3 Topologies and Control for PV Inverters......Page 554
References......Page 555