Power System Stability and Control, Third Edition

Power System Stability and Control, Third Edition......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 10
Editor......Page 12
Contributors......Page 14
I Power System Protection......Page 18
1.1 Types of Transformer Faults......Page 20
1.2.1 Electrical......Page 21
1.2.3 Thermal......Page 23
1.3.1 Current Transformers......Page 25
1.3.4 Turn-to-Turn Faults......Page 26
1.4.2 Zigzag Transformers......Page 27
1.4.6 Sustained Voltage Unbalance......Page 28
1.5 Restoration......Page 29
References......Page 30
2 The Protection of Synchronous Generators......Page 32
2.2 Differential Protection for Stator Faults (87G)......Page 33
2.3 Protection against Stator Winding Ground Fault......Page 35
2.5 Loss-of-Excitation Protection (40)......Page 37
2.6 Current Imbalance (46)......Page 38
2.8 Overexcitation Protection (24)......Page 40
2.9 Overvoltage (59)......Page 41
2.10 Voltage Imbalance Protection (60)......Page 42
2.11 System Backup Protection (51V and 21)......Page 43
2.12 Out-of-Step Protection......Page 45
2.13 Abnormal Frequency Operation of Turbine-Generator......Page 46
2.14 Protection against Accidental Energization......Page 47
2.15 Generator Breaker Failure......Page 48
2.17.1 Improvements in Signal Processing......Page 49
2.17.2 Improvements in Protective Functions......Page 50
References......Page 51
3 Transmission Line Protection......Page 52
3.1.2 Zones of Protection......Page 53
3.1.5 Reclosing......Page 54
3.1.6 System Configuration......Page 55
3.2.2 Inverse Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays......Page 56
3.2.3 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays......Page 58
3.3.2 Admittance Relay......Page 59
3.3.3 Reactance Relay......Page 60
3.4.2 Transfer Tripping......Page 61
3.5.1 Electromechanical Relays......Page 62
3.5.3 Computer Relays......Page 63
Reference......Page 64
4.2 Disturbances: Causes and Remedial Measures [7]......Page 66
4.3 Transient Stability and Out-of-Step Protection......Page 67
4.4 Overload and Underfrequency Load Shedding......Page 68
4.5 Voltage Stability and Undervoltage Load Shedding......Page 69
4.6 Special Protection Schemes......Page 71
4.7.1 Phasor Measurement Technology [7]......Page 72
4.7.2 Communication Technology [7]......Page 73
4.8 Future Improvements in Control and Protection......Page 74
References......Page 75
5 Digital Relaying......Page 76
5.2 Antialiasing Filters......Page 77
5.3 Sigma-Delta A/D Converters......Page 78
5.4 Phasors from Samples......Page 79
5.5 Symmetrical Components......Page 81
5.6.1 Parameter Estimation......Page 82
5.6.3 DFT......Page 84
5.6.4.1 Line Protection Algorithms......Page 85
5.6.4.2 Transformer Protection Algorithms......Page 87
5.6.5 Kalman Filters......Page 88
5.6.6 Wavelet Transforms......Page 90
5.6.7 Neural Networks......Page 93
References......Page 94
6 Use of Oscillograph Records to Analyze System Performance......Page 96
7 Systems Aspects of Large Blackouts......Page 108
References......Page 110
II Power System Dynamics and Stability......Page 112
8.1 Basic Concepts......Page 116
8.2.1 Need for Classification......Page 117
8.2.2 Rotor Angle Stability......Page 118
8.2.3 Voltage Stability......Page 120
8.2.4 Frequency Stability......Page 121
8.3 Historical Review of Stability Problems......Page 122
8.4 Consideration of Stability in Power System Design and Operation......Page 124
References......Page 125
9.2 Basic Theory of Transient Stability......Page 128
9.2.1 Swing Equation......Page 129
9.2.2 Power–Angle Relationship......Page 130
9.2.3 Equal Area Criterion......Page 132
9.3.1 Modeling......Page 134
9.3.3 Simulation Studies......Page 135
9.4 Factors Influencing Transient Stability......Page 136
9.5 Transient Stability Considerations in System Design......Page 137
9.6 Transient Stability Considerations in System Operation......Page 138
References......Page 139
10.1.1 Historical Perspective......Page 140
10.1.2 Power System Oscillations Classified by Interaction Characteristics......Page 143
10.1.3 Summary on the Nature of Power System Oscillations......Page 145
10.3.1 Study Objectives......Page 146
10.3.3 Modeling Requirements......Page 147
10.3.5 Analysis and Verification......Page 148
10.4.1 Siting......Page 149
10.4.3 Closed-Loop Control Design......Page 150
10.4.5 Input-Signal Filtering......Page 151
10.4.8 Control Output Limits......Page 152
10.4.10 Adverse Side Effects......Page 153
10.4.11 Power System Stabilizer Tuning Example......Page 154
10.6 Modal Identification......Page 157
10.7 Summary......Page 158
References......Page 159
11.1 Basic Concepts......Page 164
11.1.1 Generator-Load Example......Page 165
11.1.2 Load Modeling......Page 167
11.1.3.1 Large-Disturbance Voltage Stability......Page 170
11.2.1 Power Flow Analysis......Page 172
11.2.2 Continuation Methods......Page 173
11.2.4 Timescale Decomposition......Page 174
11.3 Mitigation of Voltage Stability Problems......Page 175
References......Page 176
12 Direct Stability Methods......Page 178
12.1 Review of Literature on Direct Methods......Page 179
12.2 The Power System Model......Page 181
12.2.1 Review of Stability Theory......Page 182
12.3 The Transient Energy Function......Page 184
12.5 Determination of the Controlling UEP......Page 186
12.6 The Boundary Controlling UEP Method......Page 187
References......Page 188
13 Power System Stability Controls......Page 192
13.1 Review of Power System Synchronous Stability Basics......Page 193
13.2.1 Feedback Controls......Page 196
13.2.4 Effectiveness and Robustness......Page 197
13.3 Types of Power System Stability Controls and Possibilities for Advanced Control......Page 198
13.3.2 Prime Mover Control Including Fast Valving......Page 199
13.3.4 Fast Fault Clearing, High-Speed Reclosing, and Single-Pole Switching......Page 200
13.3.7 Reactive Power Compensation Switching or Modulation......Page 202
13.3.8 Current Injection by Voltage Sourced Inverters......Page 203
13.3.10 HVDC Link Supplementary Controls......Page 204
13.5 “Intelligent” Controls......Page 205
13.6 Wide-Area Stability Controls......Page 206
References......Page 207
14.1 Modeling Requirements......Page 212
14.2.1 Rotor Mechanical Model......Page 213
14.2.2 Generator Electrical Model......Page 214
14.2.3 Saturation Modeling......Page 215
14.3 Excitation System Modeling......Page 216
14.4 Prime Mover Modeling......Page 217
14.4.1 Wind-Turbine-Generator Systems......Page 218
14.5 Load Modeling......Page 219
14.6 Transmission Device Models......Page 221
14.6.1 Static VAr Systems......Page 222
14.7 Dynamic Equivalents......Page 223
References......Page 224
15 Wide-Area Monitoring and Situational Awareness......Page 226
15.1.1 Drivers for Wide-Area Monitoring and Situational Awareness......Page 227
15.1.2 What Is Situation Awareness?......Page 230
15.1.4 Grid Operator Visualization Advancements......Page 231
15.2.1 Phasor Measurement Unit......Page 233
15.2.2 Phasor Data Concentrator......Page 235
15.2.3 Phasor Gateway and NASPInet......Page 236
15.2.4 Emerging Protocols and Standards......Page 239
15.3.1 Angle Monitoring and Alarming......Page 240
15.3.2.1 Actual System Examples from the Western North American Power System......Page 242
15.3.2.2 Response Types......Page 245
15.3.2.4 Mode Estimation Example......Page 246
15.3.2.5 Estimating Mode Shape......Page 247
15.3.3.1 Description of Voltage Stability......Page 249
15.3.3.2 Voltage Stability Monitoring and Instability Detection......Page 251
15.3.4 Transient Stability Monitoring......Page 254
15.3.4.1 Transient Stability Monitoring via Energy Functions......Page 255
15.3.4.2 Applications to U.S. Western North American Power System......Page 256
15.3.5 Improved State Estimation......Page 257
15.4.1 North American SynchroPhasor Initiative......Page 260
15.5.1 WAMS Applications in Europe......Page 261
15.5.2 WAMS Applications in Brazil......Page 262
15.6 WAMS Deployment Roadmap......Page 265
References......Page 266
16.1 Definitions and Historical Perspective......Page 272
16.3 Security Criteria......Page 274
16.4.1 Power System Network......Page 276
16.4.3 Loads......Page 277
16.4.6 Model Validation......Page 278
16.5.2 P–V Analysis and Continuation Power Flow Methods......Page 279
16.5.3 Time-Domain Simulations......Page 280
16.5.5 Direct Methods......Page 281
16.7 Off-Line DSA......Page 282
16.8 Online DSA......Page 283
16.9 Status and Summary......Page 287
References......Page 288
17.1 Introduction......Page 292
17.2 Subsynchronous Resonance......Page 293
17.2.3 SSR Physical Principles......Page 294
17.2.4 SSR Mitigation......Page 296
17.2.5.1 Frequency Scanning......Page 298
17.2.5.2 Eigenvalue Analysis......Page 300
17.2.5.3 Transient Analysis......Page 301
17.2.5.4 Data for SSR Analysis......Page 302
17.2.6.1 Unit-Tripping SSR Countermeasures......Page 303
17.2.7 Fatigue Damage and Monitoring......Page 304
17.2.8.2 Modal Damping Tests......Page 305
17.2.8.3 Countermeasure Tests......Page 306
17.2.9 Summary......Page 307
17.3 Device-Dependent Subsynchronous Oscillations......Page 308
17.4 Supersynchronous Resonance......Page 309
17.5 Device-Dependent Supersynchronous Oscillations......Page 311
17.6 Transient Shaft Torque Oscillations......Page 312
References......Page 313
18.2 Background......Page 316
18.3.1 Fixed-Speed WTG......Page 317
18.3.2 Variable-Speed WTG......Page 318
18.3.3 Control of Type-3 and Type-4 WTG Units......Page 320
18.4 Wind Power Plant Systems......Page 322
18.4.2 Offshore WPPs......Page 323
18.5.1 WPP Models......Page 326
18.5.2.1 WPP-Level Real-Power Control......Page 329
18.5.2.2 WPP-Level Reactive-Power Control......Page 330
References......Page 331
19.1 Introduction......Page 334
19.2 Concepts of Facts......Page 335
19.3 Reactive Power Compensation in Transmission Lines......Page 336
19.4 Static var Compensator......Page 337
19.4.1 Operating Principle......Page 339
19.4.2 Voltage Control by SVC......Page 340
19.4.3.2 Improvement of System Transient Stability Limit......Page 341
19.4.3.3 Enhancement of System Damping......Page 342
19.4.3.6 Improvement of HVDC Converter Terminal Performance......Page 344
19.5 Thyristor-Controlled Series Compensation......Page 345
19.5.1 Operating Principle......Page 346
19.5.2.1 Improvement of System Power Transfer Capacity......Page 347
19.5.2.2 Enhancement of System Damping......Page 348
19.5.2.3 Mitigation of Subsynchronous Resonance......Page 349
19.6.1 Operating Principle......Page 351
19.7 Static Series Synchronous Compensator......Page 353
19.7.2 SSSC Applications......Page 354
19.8 Unified Power Flow Controller......Page 355
19.8.2 UPFC Applications......Page 356
19.9 FACTS Controllers with Energy Storage......Page 358
19.10.2.1 Coordination Concepts......Page 359
19.10.2.2 Example Installation......Page 360
19.12 Conclusions......Page 364
References......Page 365
III Power System Operation and Control......Page 372
20 Energy Management......Page 374
20.1 Power System Data Acquisition and Control......Page 376
20.2.2 Economic Dispatch......Page 377
20.2.4 Interchange Transaction Scheduling......Page 378
20.4 Energy Management......Page 379
20.5 Security Control......Page 380
20.6 Operator Training Simulator......Page 381
20.7 Trends in Energy Management......Page 382
Further Information......Page 383
21.1.1 Economic Dispatch Defined......Page 384
21.1.2 Factors to Consider in the EDC......Page 385
21.1.5 The Traditional EDC Mathematical Formulation......Page 386
21.1.7 An Example of Cost-Minimizing EDC......Page 388
21.1.8 EDC and Auctions......Page 389
21.2.2 Factors to Consider in Solving the UC Problem......Page 390
21.2.3 Mathematical Formulation for UC......Page 392
21.2.5 Solution Methods......Page 394
21.2.6 A Genetic-Based UC Algorithm......Page 395
21.2.7 Unit Commitment and Auctions......Page 400
References......Page 401
22 State Estimation......Page 402
22.1.1 Underlying Assumptions......Page 403
22.1.2 Measurement Representations......Page 404
22.1.3.1 Weighted Least Squares......Page 405
22.1.3.2 Linear Programming......Page 407
22.2.1 Network Topology Assessment......Page 408
22.2.2 Error Identification......Page 409
22.3.1 System Description......Page 410
22.3.2 WLS State Estimation Process......Page 411
References......Page 413
23 Optimal Power Flow......Page 414
23.1 Conventional Optimal Economic Scheduling......Page 415
23.2 Conventional OPF Formulation......Page 416
23.2.1 Application of Optimization Methods to OPF......Page 418
23.3.2 Static Load Models......Page 420
23.3.3 Conventional OPF Studies Including Load Models......Page 421
23.4 SCOPF Including Load Modeling......Page 422
23.4.1 Influence of Fixed Tap Transformer Fed Loads......Page 423
23.5.2 Robustness of OPF Solutions with Respect to Initial Guess Point......Page 424
23.5.4 Detecting and Handling Infeasibility......Page 425
23.5.6 Ineffective “Optimal” Rescheduling......Page 426
References......Page 427
24 Security Analysis......Page 430
24.2 Time Frames for Security-Related Decision......Page 431
24.3 Models......Page 432
24.4.1 Security under Deregulation......Page 434
24.B Appendix B......Page 435
References......Page 436