Postharvest and Postmortem Processing of Raw Food Materials: Unit Operations and Processing Equipment in the Food Industry (Unit Operations and Processing Equipment in the Food Industry, 2)

Front Cover
Postharvest and Postmortem Processing of Raw Food Materials
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface to the book series
Preface
1 Introduction to postharvest and postmortem technology
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Primary operations in postharvest processing
		1.2.1 Cleaning
			1.2.1.1 Wet cleaning methods
			1.2.1.2 Dry cleaning methods
			1.2.1.3 Physical inspection
		1.2.2 Sorting
		1.2.3 Grading
		1.2.4 Peeling
		1.2.5 Blanching
		1.2.6 Sulfiting
	1.3 Disintegration of raw agricultural crops
		1.3.1 Disintegration with little changes in form
			1.3.1.1 Husking
			1.3.1.2 Shelling
			1.3.1.3 Pitting
			1.3.1.4 Coring
			1.3.1.5 Snapping and destemming
		1.3.2 Disintegration with considerable changes in form
			1.3.2.1 Cutting/dicing
			1.3.2.2 Crushing and grinding
			1.3.2.3 Slaughtering
			1.3.2.4 Shredding
			1.3.2.5 Sheeting
			1.3.2.6 Juice extraction
			1.3.2.7 Homogenization
	1.4 Postmortem processing operations
		1.4.1 Processing and preparation of red meat carcasses
			1.4.1.1 Preslaughter activities
			1.4.1.2 Slaughter of animals
		1.4.2 Processing and preparation of slaughtered poultry
			1.4.2.1 Preslaughter activities for poultry processing
			1.4.2.2 Poultry slaughter
		1.4.3 Processing and preparation of fish
			1.4.3.1 Preslaughter activities in fish
			1.4.3.2 Slaughtering and postmortem processing of fish
		1.4.4 Preservation of meats, poultry, and fish
	1.5 Physiological metabolism of fruits and vegetables in postharvest stages
		1.5.1 Physiological metabolism
			1.5.1.1 Respiration
			1.5.1.2 Ethylene production and response
			1.5.1.3 Fruit ripening
			1.5.1.4 Water loss
		1.5.2 Factors influencing the physiological metabolism
			1.5.2.1 Pathological factors
			1.5.2.2 Environmental condition factor
	1.6 Postmortem changes in meat
		1.6.1 Phases of postmortem changes after slaughtering
			1.6.1.1 Prerigor phase
			1.6.1.2 Rigor-mortis phase
			1.6.1.3 Postrigor phase
		1.6.2 Physical and chemical changes after meat slaughtering
			1.6.2.1 Changes in pH of meat
			1.6.2.2 Changes in meat color
			1.6.2.3 Changes in water holding capacity
	1.7 Postmortem treatment of meat
		1.7.1 Meat aging
		1.7.2 Meat curing
		1.7.3 Active/vacuum/modified atmosphere packaging
	1.8 Concluding remarks
	References
I. Primary operations in postharvest processing
	2 Food-materials cleaning: Current trends and recent advances
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Raw food material cleaning methods
			2.2.1 Soil and dirt cleaning
				2.2.1.1 Mechanical washing
				2.2.1.2 Pressure washing
			2.2.2 Chemical and toxic cleaning
			2.2.3 Microbial cleaning
				2.2.3.1 Diffusion cleaning
				2.2.3.2 Enzymatic cleaning
		2.3 Efficacy of commonly used cleaning systems
		2.4 Harmful side effects of cleaning
			2.4.1 Loss of food quality attributes
			2.4.2 Toxicity
			2.4.3 Environmental pollution
		2.5 Challenges in cleaning operations
		2.6 Innovative cleaning technologies
		2.7 Conclusions
		References
	3 Sorting operations for the classification of agricultural crops
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Importance of engineering properties in sorting
		3.3 Principles of sorting for food and agricultural products
			3.3.1 Weight or density
			3.3.2 Size
			3.3.3 Shape
			3.3.4 Color
			3.3.5 X-ray imaging
			3.3.6 Mechanical sensing
			3.3.7 Spectroscopy
			3.3.8 Impact acoustics
			3.3.9 Other technologies
		3.4 Recent sorting techniques
			3.4.1 Computer vision
				3.4.1.1 Applications
			3.4.2 Image processing
				3.4.2.1 Database
				3.4.2.2 Preprocessing
				3.4.2.3 Background subtraction
				3.4.2.4 Feature extraction
				3.4.2.5 Identification and classification
				3.4.2.6 Applications
			3.4.3 Spectral techniques
			3.4.4 Biospeckle imagery
			3.4.5 Hyperspectral Imagery Spectroscopy
			3.4.6 Fluorescence imaging
			3.4.7 Structural illumination reflectance imaging
				3.4.7.1 Applications
			3.4.8 Nuclear magnetic techniques
			3.4.9 Magnetic resonance imaging
			3.4.10 X-ray imaging
				3.4.10.1 Applications
		3.5 Other sorting techniques
			3.5.1 Thermal imaging
				3.5.1.1 Applications
		3.6 Role of computer aided engineering in food and agri product sorting
		3.7 Concluding remarks
		References
	4 Selection of fruits by multisensor systems
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Nondestructive methods for fruit quality assessment
			4.2.1 Fruit firmness estimation techniques
				4.2.1.1 Impact techniques and mechanical vibration
				4.2.1.2 Acoustic response technique
				4.2.1.3 Micro-electro-mechanical sensors
				4.2.1.4 Color theory
		4.3 Sensor device 1 (DS1): electret microphone for capturing the sound of the impact
			4.3.1 Description of DS1
			4.3.2 DS1 signal record
			4.3.3 Advantages of DS1
			4.3.4 Possible disadvantages of DS1
		4.4 Sensor device 2 (DS2): MEMS accelerometer
			4.4.1 Description of DS2
			4.4.2 Advantages of DS2
			4.4.3 Possible disadvantages of DS2
			4.4.4 Practical application of DS2
		4.5 Sensor device 3 (DS3): electret microphone as an accelerometer
			4.5.1 Description of DS3
			4.5.2 Advantages of DS3
			4.5.3 Possible disadvantages of DS3
			4.5.4 Practical application of DS3
		4.6 Sensor device (DS4): video camera
			4.6.1 Sensor description
			4.6.2 Advantages of using a video camera
			4.6.3 Possible disadvantages of using a video camera
			4.6.4 Practical application of DS4
		4.7 The fusion of low-cost sensors for predicting mango firmness
			4.7.1 Motivation for using sensor fusion
			4.7.2 Disadvantages of using sensor fusion
			4.7.3 Architecture of a sensor fusion system
			4.7.4 Sensor fusion configuration
				4.7.4.1 Complementary configuration
				4.7.4.2 Competitive configuration
				4.7.4.3 Cooperative configuration
		4.8 Case study: sensor fusion
		4.9 Conclusions
		References
	5 Peeling
		5.1 Introduction
			5.1.1 Need for peeling
		5.2 Peeling methods
			5.2.1 Manual peeling
			5.2.2 Chemical peeling
			5.2.3 Thermal peeling
				5.2.3.1 Steam peeling
				5.2.3.2 Flame peeling
				5.2.3.3 Infrared peeling
			5.2.4 Mechanical peeling
				5.2.4.1 Abrasion peeling
				5.2.4.2 Nonabrasive peeling
			5.2.5 Enzymatic peeling
		5.3 Conclusion
		References
II. Disintegration of raw agricultural crops
	6 Disintegration of fruits and vegetables with little changes in form: husking, shelling, pitting, coring, snipping, and de...
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Husking
			6.2.1 Coconut crops
			6.2.2 Processing equipment and techniques
			6.2.3 Preservation methods and nutritional composition in coconut
			6.2.4 Safety concerns in coconuts
		6.3 Shelling
			6.3.1 Almond crops
			6.3.2 Processing equipment and techniques
			6.3.3 Preservation methods and nutritional composition in almonds
				6.3.3.1 Packaging and storage conditions
				6.3.3.2 Chemical treatments
				6.3.3.3 Edible coating or films
				6.3.3.4 Nutritional composition
			6.3.4 Safety concerns in almonds
		6.4 Pitting
			6.4.1 Sweet cherry crop
			6.4.2 Processing equipment and techniques
				6.4.2.1 Chopstick method
				6.4.2.2 Paper clip method
				6.4.2.3 Peach pit method
			6.4.3 Preservation methods and nutritional composition in cherries
				6.4.3.1 Packaging and storage
				6.4.3.2 Nutritional composition
			6.4.4 Safety concerns in cherries
		6.5 Coring
			6.5.1 Pineapple crops
			6.5.2 Processing equipment and techniques
			6.5.3 Preservation methods and nutritional composition in pineapple crops
				6.5.3.1 Chemical treatment with benzoic acid
				6.5.3.2 Chemical treatment with sulfur dioxide
				6.5.3.3 Chemical treatment with citric acid
				6.5.3.4 Other preservation methods
				6.5.3.5 Nutritional composition
			6.5.4 Safety concerns in pineapples
				6.5.4.1 Black rot
				6.5.4.2 Fruitlet core rot
				6.5.4.3 Yeasty fermentation
		6.6 Snipping
			6.6.1 Chili crops
			6.6.2 Processing equipment and techniques
				6.6.2.1 Sorting and grading
				6.6.2.2 Storing and packaging
				6.6.2.3 Transportation
			6.6.3 Preservation methods and nutritional composition in chili crops
				6.6.3.1 Hot and cold treatment
				6.6.3.2 Chemical preservation
				6.6.3.3 Nutritional composition
			6.6.4 Safety concerns in chili crops
		6.7 Destemming
			6.7.1 Tomato crops
			6.7.2 Processing equipment and techniques
				6.7.2.1 Harvesting
				6.7.2.2 Precooling
				6.7.2.3 Cleaning and disinfecting
				6.7.2.4 Sorting and grading
				6.7.2.5 Packaging and storing
				6.7.2.6 Transportation
			6.7.3 Preservation methods and nutritional composition in tomato crops
				6.7.3.1 Nutritional composition
			6.7.4 Safety concerns in tomato crops
		6.8 Concluding remarks and future direction
		Acknowledgments
		References
	7 Disintegration with considerable changes in form: cutting/dicing, crushing and grinding, shredding, sheeting, and pulping
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Cutting operations
			7.2.1 Processing equipment and techniques for cutting
			7.2.2 Cutting applications for different products including meat and fish
		7.3 Dicing operations
			7.3.1 Processing equipment and techniques for dicing
			7.3.2 Application of dicing for different crops
		7.4 Crushing and grinding operations
			7.4.1 Flour production
			7.4.2 Raw material quality assessment
			7.4.3 End-products from milling
			7.4.4 Final product quality assessment
			7.4.5 Flour storage
		7.5 Shredding operations
			7.5.1 Processing equipment and techniques for shredding
			7.5.2 Shredding methods
				7.5.2.1 Manual shredding
				7.5.2.2 Mechanical shredding
			7.5.3 Machinery requirement
				7.5.3.1 Machine frame
				7.5.3.2 Shredding chamber
				7.5.3.3 Cutting machines
			7.5.4 Application of shredding for different products
				7.5.4.1 Shredding of fruits and vegetables
				7.5.4.2 Shredding of meats
		7.6 Sheeting operations
			7.6.1 Processing equipment and techniques for sheeting
			7.6.2 Sheeting methods
				7.6.2.1 Manual sheeting
				7.6.2.2 Mechanical sheeting
			7.6.3 Machinery requirement
				7.6.3.1 Frame
				7.6.3.2 Hopper
				7.6.3.3 Processing chamber
				7.6.3.4 Sheeting disc
				7.6.3.5 Sheeting blades
				7.6.3.6 Power supply
			7.6.4 Application of sheeting for different products
				7.6.4.1 Sheeting of vegetables
		7.7 Pulping operations
			7.7.1 Processing equipment and techniques for pulping
				7.7.1.1 Pulper (pulping machine)
				7.7.1.2 Process of fruit pulping
				7.7.1.3 Mango pulp
			7.7.2 Safety concern and storability of pulp
			7.7.3 Pulp preservation
			7.7.4 Application of pulping for different products
		7.8 Concluding remarks and future directions
		Acknowledgment
		References
III. Postmortem processing operations
	8 Processing of red meat carcasses
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Preslaughter operations
			8.2.1 At the farm
			8.2.2 Transportation of animals
				8.2.2.1 Loading and unloading
				8.2.2.2 Fitness to travel
				8.2.2.3 Vehicles
				8.2.2.4 Operator duties
				8.2.2.5 Transport preparation
				8.2.2.6 Preloading precautions
				8.2.2.7 Loading
				8.2.2.8 Journey
				8.2.2.9 Welfare assessment in transit
				8.2.2.10 Shrinkage and mortality in transit
				8.2.2.11 Arrival
				8.2.2.12 Unloading
			8.2.3 Lairage (holding pens)
				8.2.3.1 Lairage design
				8.2.3.2 Watering and fasting
				8.2.3.3 Feeding
				8.2.3.4 Preslaughter rest
			8.2.4 Bruises and traumatic injuries
			8.2.5 Antemortem inspection
		8.3 Slaughtering operations
			8.3.1 Space and restraints
			8.3.2 Stunning
				8.3.2.1 Stunning methods
					8.3.2.1.1 Mechanical stunning: percussive stunning
					8.3.2.1.2 Gaseous stunning
					8.3.2.1.3 Electric stunning
					8.3.2.1.4 Methods
			8.3.3 Other methods of slaughter
				8.3.3.1 Neck stab
				8.3.3.2 Pithing
			8.3.4 Religious or ritual slaughter
				8.3.4.1 Shechita/Jewish method of slaughter
				8.3.4.2 Halal method of slaughter
			8.3.5 Sticking/bleeding/exsanguination
			8.3.6 Dressing techniques
				8.3.6.1 Dressing of buffalo/cattle
				8.3.6.2 Dressing of sheep and goat
				8.3.6.3 Dressing of pig
		8.4 Postmortem examination
		8.5 Good hygienic practices during dressing
			8.5.1 Multiple knife technique
			8.5.2 Deskinning
			8.5.3 Vertical scalding of pigs
			8.5.4 Removal of gastrointestinal content
		8.6 Carcass decontamination
		8.7 Traceability
		8.8 Animal welfare and meat quality
		8.9 Conclusions
		References
	9 Processing and preparation of slaughtered poultry
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Present scenario
		9.3 Preslaughter factors
			9.3.1 Selection of live birds for slaughter
			9.3.2 Harvesting of birds
			9.3.3 Feed withdrawal
				9.3.3.1 Withdrawal period duration
				9.3.3.2 Merit of feed withdrawal and concerns
				9.3.3.3 Feed withdrawal period management
				9.3.3.4 Short versus long feed withdrawal period
			9.3.4 Catching and loading
				9.3.4.1 Crates
				9.3.4.2 Modular system
				9.3.4.3 Mechanical harvesting
			9.3.5 Transportation
			9.3.6 Unloading
			9.3.7 Preslaughter inspection
			9.3.8 Shackling
			9.3.9 Stunning
				9.3.9.1 Electric stunning
				9.3.9.2 Gaseous stunning
		9.4 Postslaughter operations
			9.4.1 Killing
			9.4.2 Bleeding
			9.4.3 Scalding
			9.4.4 Plucking/defeathering
			9.4.5 Singeing
			9.4.6 Evisceration
				9.4.6.1 New York dressed poultry
				9.4.6.2 Effile
			9.4.7 Chilling
			9.4.8 Postmortem Inspection
			9.4.9 Traceability
			9.4.10 Animal welfare and meat quality
		9.5 Disclaimer
		References
	10 Processing and preparation of fish
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Spoilage of fish
			10.2.1 Mechanism of spoilage
			10.2.2 Types of fish spoilage
				10.2.2.1 Enzymatic spoilage
				10.2.2.2 Auto-oxidation
				10.2.2.3 Microbial spoilage
		10.3 Fish processing
			10.3.1 Preliminary processing and fish preparation
				10.3.1.1 Sorting
				10.3.1.2 Grading and scaling
				10.3.1.3 Washing and cleaning
				10.3.1.4 Decapitating and gutting
				10.3.1.5 Filleting and skinning
				10.3.1.6 Freezing and thawing
			10.3.2 Secondary processing
				10.3.2.1 Salting
				10.3.2.2 Smoking
				10.3.2.3 Drying
				10.3.2.4 Oil production
				10.3.2.5 Canning
				10.3.2.6 Extrusion
			10.3.3 Processing of waste and spoiled fish
				10.3.3.1 Fish silage
				10.3.3.2 Fish meal
				10.3.3.3 Fish sauce
		10.4 Emerging processing / preservation techniques
			10.4.1 High pressure processing
			10.4.2 Pressure shift freezing
			10.4.3 Pressure assisted thawing
			10.4.4 Pulsed light technology
			10.4.5 Pulsed electric fields
			10.4.6 Irradiation
			10.4.7 Infrared and radiofrequency
			10.4.8 Radio frequency thawing
			10.4.9 Microwave processing
			10.4.10 Ultrasonic processing
			10.4.11 Ohmic heating
			10.4.12 Retort-pouch
			10.4.13 Vacuum cooling
			10.4.14 Vacuum-cooking
		10.5 Packaging used for fish products
			10.5.1 Smart packaging
			10.5.2 Modified atmosphere packaging
			10.5.3 Vacuum packaging
		References
	11 Use of biopreservation to improve the quality of fresh aquatic products
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Biopreservatives obtained from microorganisms
			11.2.1 General aspects
			11.2.2 Biopreservation of aquatic products through the application of protective cultures
			11.2.3 Biopreservation of aquatic products through the application of bacteriocins
		11.3 Biopreservatives obtained from vegetables and algae
			11.3.1 General aspects
			11.3.2 Essential oils and quality enhancement of fresh aquatic food
				11.3.2.1 Essential oils in direct contact with the product
				11.3.2.2 Essential oils in the packaging medium
			11.3.3 Plant-derived extracts and quality enhancement of fresh aquatic food
				11.3.3.1 Plant-derived extracts in the icing medium
				11.3.3.2 Plant-derived extracts in the packaging medium
			11.3.4 Algae-derived extracts and quality enhancement of fresh aquatic food
				11.3.4.1 Algae-derived extracts in the icing medium
				11.3.4.2 Algae-derived extracts in the packaging medium
		11.4 Conclusion
		References
Index
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