Port Economics, Management and Policy

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Part I: Ports and maritime shipping
	Chapter 1.1 Maritime shipping and international trade
		1 Maritime shipping as a driver of globalization
		2 Ongoing growth of international trade
		3 The containerization of trade
			3.1 The emergence of the container
			3.2 Containerized trade networks
			3.3 Containerized growth dynamics
		4 The shift in global trade patterns
		5 International trade and maritime shipping services
			5.1 Maritime services in dry bulk shipping
			5.2 Maritime services in the roll-on/roll-off (RoRo) market
			5.3 Maritime services in the general cargo market
			5.4 Maritime services in container shipping
	Chapter 1.2 Ports and maritime supply chains
		1 Growing complexity in supply chain management
			1.1 Customer expectations
			1.2 Globalization
			1.3 Technological innovation
			1.4 Regulation and competition
			1.5 Sustainability
		2 Improving competitiveness
			2.1 Operating margins and cost control
			2.2 Cost leadership and differentiation strategies
		3 The role of third-party logistics services
		4 Functional integration in the logistics industry
			4.1 Vertical integration
			4.2 Horizontal integration
			4.3 E-fulfilment and e-commerce
		5 Information technologies and digital transformation
	Chapter 1.3 Ports and container shipping
		1 An asset-based industry
		2 Freight rates and surcharges
		3 Scale enlargement in vessel size
		4 Horizontal integration: operational agreements and M&A
		5 Vertical integration: extending the scope of operations
		6 Container services and networks
			6.1 Container service network patterns
			6.2 The design of container liner services
		7 The connectivity of container ports in maritime networks
	Chapter 1.4 Ports and distribution networks
		1 Ports as locations for distribution centers
		2 Warehousing activities in supply chains
			2.1 Warehouses and fulfillment centers
			2.2 Main trends in the warehousing sector
		3 Regional distribution networks
			3.1 Choice of distribution system
			3.2 Location selection for distribution centers
			3.3 Value-added logistics services
	Chapter 1.5 Ports and cruise shipping
		1 Evolution of cruise shipping
		2 Growth drivers
		3 Upgraded vessels and onboard amenities
		4 Scale and market
		5 Globalization of deployment patterns
		6 Internationalization of source markets
		7 Market concentration and multi-brand strategies
	Chapter 1.6 Interoceanic passages
		1 Global maritime routes and chokepoints
		2 The Suez Canal
		3 The Panama Canal
		4 The Strait of Malacca
		5 The Strait of Hormuz
		6 Other important passages
Part II: Contemporary ports
	Chapter 2.1 The changing geography of seaports
		1 The geography of ports
			1.1 Geographical considerations
			1.2 Historical considerations
		2 The evolution of contemporary ports
			2.1 Conventional port sites
			2.2 Containerization
			2.3 Mega port facilities
			2.4 Ports on the periphery
			2.5 Automation
		3 Port migration
		4 Maritime regions
	Chapter 2.2 Port hinterlands, regionalization and corridors
		1 The hinterland concept
		2 The Hinterland as part of the maritime/land interface
		3 The hinterland focus of market players
		4 Port regionalization
		5 Hinterland accessibility
			5.1 Definition in a port context
			5.2 Stakeholders in hinterland accessibility
			5.3 Centrality and hinterland accessibility
		6 Transport corridors
			6.1 Definition and performance
			6.2 Rail corridors
			6.3 Inland waterways as hinterland corridors
		7 Cargo bundling in hinterland transport
			7.1 Cargo bundling options
			7.2 Cargo bundling in seaport areas
			7.3 Specific considerations related to cargo bundling
	Chapter 2.3 Dry ports
		1 A new role for inland terminals
		2 Driving forces
		3 Functions within transport chains
		4 The regional impacts of inland ports
			4.1 Europe
			4.2 North America
			4.3 East and Southeast Asia
		5 Future prospects
	Chapter 2.4 Digital transformation
		1 The digital transformation of ports
		2 Disruptive ICT innovations for ports
			2.1 Automation and innovation
			2.2 Automation and robotics
			2.3 The Internet of Things (IoT) and big data analytics
			2.4 Simulation and virtual reality
		3 Port community systems and blockchains
		4 Digitalization in cruise ports
	Chapter 2.5 Green supply chain management in ports
		1 The greening of supply chains
		2 Green design, procurement and manufacturing
			2.1 Eco-design and green process engineering
			2.2 Green procurement and purchasing
			2.3 Green production and remanufacturing
		3 Energy and transportation efficiency
			3.1 Energy efficiency in supply chain management
			3.2 Green logistics, distribution and transportation
		4 Drivers of GSCM and corporate strategy
			4.1 Green supply chains and environmental manage-ment systems
			4.2 GSCM and corporate profitability
			4.3 Incentives for GSCM
		5 GSCM and ports
			5.1 Green shipping
			5.2 Green port development and operations
			5.3 Green inland logistics, modal shift and inland terminals
			5.4 Seaports and the circular economy
			5.5 Knowledge development
Part III: Port terminals
	Chapter 3.1 Terminals and terminal operators
		1 Port terminals
		2 Global terminal operators
			2.1 Private involvement in port terminal operations
			2.2 Typology of port holdings
			2.3 Global terminal operators
		3 The strategies of container terminal operators
		4 Cruise terminal operators
			4.1 The emergence of cruise terminal operators
			4.2 Strategies of cruise terminal operators
			4.3 The internationalization of cruise terminal operators
	Chapter 3.2 Terminal concessions and land leases
		1 Private involvement in port investment and operation
		2 Terminal concessions
		3 The terminal awarding procedure
		4 The pre-bidding phase
			4.1 Object of the concession
			4.2 Main use of the terminal
			4.3 Splitting and phasing of the terminal site
			4.4 The division of risks and investments
			4.5 Duration of the concession period
			4.6 Concession fees and fee structure
			4.7 Final asset compensation
		5 The prequalification phase
			5.1 Dealing with incumbent terminal operators
			5.2 Experience and financial strength
		6 The selection phase
			6.1 The technical and financial proposal
			6.2 Price bid
		7 Post-bidding phase
			7.1 The concession agreement
			7.2 Throughput guarantees
			7.3 Effectiveness of sanctions in concession agreements
	Chapter 3.3 Financialization and terminal funding
		1 The financialization of the terminal industry
		2 Risks and terminal investments
			2.1 Port terminals as financial risk factors
			2.2 Port specific risks for terminal operators
			2.3 Implications for concessions
		3 Funding and financing of terminal development
	Chapter 3.4 Container terminal design and equipment
		1 The design of container terminals
		2 Container terminal equipment
		3 Maritime operations
		4 Yard and auxiliary operations
		5 Hinterland connectivity
		6 Conventional vs. automated terminal configuration
		7 Terminal capacity use and optimization
	Chapter 3.5 Bulk and break-bulk terminal design and equipment
		1 Major dry bulk terminals
		2 Minor dry bulk terminals
		3 Liquid bulk terminals
		4 RoRo terminals
		5 Break-bulk terminals
	Chapter 3.6 Cruise terminal design and equipment
		1 Cruise terminals
		2 Maritime infrastructure
		3 Apron area of the cruise terminal
		4 Cruise terminal building
		5 Embarkation and disembarkation processes
		6 Ground transportation
	Chapter 3.7 Port labor
		1 Employment effects of cargo handling
		2 Dock labor
			2.1 Market requirements
			2.2 Productivity
			2.3 Cost efficiency
			2.4 Qualitative aspects of labor performance
			2.5 Legal and social conditions and state of technology
		3 Meeting market requirements
			3.1 Deployment of new technology
			3.2 The legal status of dockworkers
			3.3 Open and autonomous labor pool systems
		4 Improving port work conditions
			4.1 Increased training initiatives and modalities
			4.2 A push for continuous work
			4.3 Composition of gangs or teams
			4.4 Changes in hiring systems
			4.5 Specialization, categorization and qualification
			4.6 Enhancing motivation and commitment
	Chapter 3.8 Terminal automation
		1 Automating terminals
			1.1 Yard automation
			1.2 Terminal interface automation
			1.3 Foreland and hinterland automation
		2 The port automation drive
		3 Automated container terminals
	Chapter 3.9 Port terminal construction
		1 Greenfield and brownfield sites
		2 Nautical access to terminals
		3 Quay wall construction
			3.1 Embedded retaining walls
			3.2 Gravity walls
			3.3 Suspended deck structures (piles)
Part IV: Port governance
	Chapter 4.1 Port governance and reform
		1 Port governance
			1.1 Defining port governance
			1.2 Port governance objectives
			1.3 Port governance tasks
			1.4 Port governance configuration
			1.5 Realignment of port governance
		2 Towards modern port governance
			2.1 Waves of port reform
			2.2 Types of endorsed reforms
		3 Contemporary port governance models
			3.1 Public and private roles in port management
			3.2 Public ownership remains dominant
			3.3 The extensive use of concessions
			3.4 Lessons from full port privatization
			3.5 Governance approaches across port sizes
			3.6 The role of the institutional setting
	Chapter 4.2 Port authorities
		1 Port authority: a definition
		2 Functions of port authorities
		3 Port authority responsibilities
			3.1 The port authority as a landlord
			3.2 The port authority as an operator
			3.3 The port authority as a regulator
		4 The port authority as a cluster manager
			4.1 Cluster leaders
			4.2 Stakeholder relationships management
		5 Port authorities’ role in cruise ports governance
		6 Ownership of port authorities
	Chapter 4.3 Port coordination and cooperation
		1 Coordination of port activities
		2 Coordination in container terminal operations
		3 Cooperation between ports
			3.1 Emerging cooperation schemes
			3.2 Port networking
			3.3 Merging of port authorities
	Chapter 4.4 Port clusters
		1 Port cluster formation
		2 Activities in port clusters
			2.1 Transport and cargo handling
			2.2 Logistics
			2.3 Industrial activities
			2.4 Energy
		3 Port-centric logistics
		4 Port cluster governance
	Chapter 4.5 Green port governance
		1 Port authorities and green ports
			1.1 Sources of environmental pollution in ports
			1.2 The greening of port management
		2 Instruments and tools for promoting green ports
			2.1 Penalty and incentive pricing
			2.2 Monitoring and measuring
			2.3 Market access control and environmental standard regulation
		3 Challenges to green port governance
		4 Green port governance and stakeholders
		5 Green cruise ports
			5.1 The cruise environmental challenge
			5.2 Waste management
			5.3 Emission control
			5.4 Regulating an emerging industry
	Chapter 4.6 Port management, governance and leadership
		1 Leadership challenges for port directors and executive staff
		2 The need for alignment on the port mission
			2.1 Alignment between the port executive team and the board members
			2.2 Alignment of port mission with customer and stakeholder goals
		3 The view from the top: the port director position
		4 Board relations
Part V: Port competition
	Chapter 5.1 Inter-port competition
		1 The port competition concept
		2 Geographical and functional levels of port competition
			2.1 Intra-port competition
			2.2 Inter-port competition within a multi-port gateway region
			2.3 Inter-port competition within a port range
			2.4 Inter-range competition
		3 Port competitive advantages
		4 Determinants of port competitiveness
	Chapter 5.2 Intra-port competition
		1 Intra-port competition
		2 Benefits of intra-port competition
			2.1 Rent-seeking behavior by service providers
			2.2 Specialization, flexible adaptation and innovation
		3 Conditions and effects of intra-port competition
	Chapter 5.3 Port marketing
		1 Ports and their customers
		2 Marketing objectives and actions
		3 Increasing customer loyalty
			3.1 Communication with customers
			3.2 Listening to front-line people
			3.3 Service failure recovery
			3.4 Identify potential defectors
			3.5 Complaint management
			3.6 Capitalize on positive communication
			3.7 Usage of exit barriers
			3.8 Customer differentiation
			3.9 Pricing strategies
	Chapter 5.4 Port pricing
		1 Port pricing strategies
		2 Pricing and asset utilization
		3 Pricing and customer management
		4 Price incentives for port customers
			4.1 Volume incentives
			4.2 Service incentives
			4.3 Utilization incentives
			4.4 Gain-sharing incentives
		5 Port pricing by port authorities
			5.1 General considerations
			5.2 Port dues
			5.3 Port concessions/land fees
		6 Structures of port charges
			6.1 Charges at container terminals
			6.2 Cruise terminals
	Chapter 5.5 Entry barriers in seaports
		1 Entry barriers in seaports
		2 Economic entry barriers
			2.1 Minimum efficient scale of port services
			2.2 Switching costs
			2.3 Sunk costs
		3 Regulatory, institutional and geography entry barriers
		4 Policies to reduce entry barriers
Part VI: Port performance
	Chapter 6.1 Port performance
		1 Port performance components
		2 Performance measurement: industry level initiatives
	Chapter 6.2 Port efficiency
		1 Dimensions of port efficiency
		2 Operational efficiency
			2.1 The port efficiency continuum
			2.2 Container terminal efficiency
			2.3 Performance and the upscale of port operations
		3 Market capture
		4 Connectivity performance
		5 Environmental performance
		6 Financial performance
		7 Port governance performance
		8 Socio-economic performance
	Chapter 6.3 Port effectiveness
		1 Effectiveness component of port performance
		2 Evaluation of port effectiveness
		3 Supply chain approach to effectiveness
		4 Variation in stakeholders’ perspectives
		5 Cruise ports performance
	Chapter 6.4 Port resilience
		1 Defining resilience
		2 Shocks and disruptions impacting ports
		3 Ports and natural disruptions
			3.1 Extreme weather events
			3.2 Geophysical disruptions
			3.3 Climate change
		4 Ports and anthropogenic disruptions
			4.1 Accidents
			4.2 Labor disputes
			4.3 Economic and geopolitical events
			4.4 Information technologies
			4.5 Pandemics
		5 Adaptation mechanisms
Part VII: Port policies and development
	Chapter 7.1 Ports, policies, and politics
		1 Multi-level port policy making
		2 National policies for ports
			2.1 National port policies themes
			2.2 Competition policies
			2.3 Port related policies
			2.4 The Harbor Master
		3 International port policies
			3.1 International organizations
			3.2 Supranational port policies: European Union
			3.3 Federal port policies: North America
			3.4 National perspectives: China
		4 Port policy issues
			4.1 Emissions control
			4.2 Port security
			4.3 International policies for dock labor
		5 Ports and geopolitics
	Chapter 7.2 Ports and economic development
		1 Ports and economic change
		2 The economic benefits of ports: direct, indirect and induced effects
		3 Assessing the economic benefits of port investments
		4 Employment effects of ports
		5 Measuring employment effects
		6 Global-local mismatch of the economic benefits of ports
	Chapter 7.3 Port planning and development
		1 Strategic Port planning
			1.1 Port planning in its context
			1.2 Strategic port planning in a changing market environment
			1.3 The strategic port planning process
			1.4 Approaches to the port planning process
		2 Data collection in port planning
		3 Traffic forecasting as part of port planning and development
			3.1 Rationale behind traffic forecasting
			3.2 Forecasting methods
			3.3 Challenges and pitfalls in traffic forecasting
		4 Stakeholder involvement in port planning and development
			4.1 Who are the stakeholders?
			4.2 Key principles of effective stakeholder relations management (SRM)
			4.3 SRM and the port objective struggle
		5 Adaptive port planning
		6 Port infrastructure project evaluation
			6.1 Procedures and guidelines
			6.2 Evaluation methods
	Chapter 7.4 Port–city relationships
		1 Cities and global hubs
			1.1 The growing role of megacities in trade
			1.2 Cities as maritime and logistics hubs
		2 Port–city interactions: divergence
		3 Waterfront redevelopment
			3.1 Waterfront redevelopment as a form of new urbanism
			3.2 Waterfront redevelopment and expanding port activities
			3.3 Waterfront redevelopment as part of stakeholder relations management
		4 Port–city interactions: sustainable cruise growth
			4.1 Reversing social perceptions
			4.2 Expanding in line with local strategies
			4.3 Sustaining an international agenda
		5 Port–city interactions: sustainability
	Chapter 7.5 Representing port interests
		1 Port and terminal associations
		2 Trade unions
		3 Port services providers
		4 Port users
Part VIII: Port markets
	Chapter 8.1 Cruise ports
		1 An expanding cruise port system
		2 Typologies of cruise ports
			2.1 The port element
			2.2 The tourism element
			2.3 Cruise port services
		3 The competitiveness of cruise ports
			3.1 Port choice and itineraries
			3.2 Infrastructure upgrade
			3.3 Relationships with cruise lines
			3.4 Scale of cruise port calls
			3.5 Seasonality of cruise activities
			3.6 Cruise ports: competition and co-opetition
		4 Home port
		5 Localization of cruise supply chains
	Chapter 8.2 Break bulk
		1 The origins of the break bulk market
			1.1 The pre-container era
			1.2 The shift to unit load
			1.3 The impact of containerization
		2 The current break bulk market
		3 The break bulk fleet
			3.1 Conventional liner type concepts
			3.2 Barge carriers
			3.3 Container ships
			3.4 Forest product carrier
			3.5 Heavy lift and project carriers
			3.6 Conventional reefer ships
			3.7 Roll-on roll-off vessels
		4 Major break bulk market segments
			4.1 Common market developments
			4.2 The steel market
			4.3 Fresh fruit
			4.4 Forest products
			4.5 Project cargo
			4.6 Coffee and cocoa
		5 Break bulk: generating employment and added-value in ports
	Chapter 8.3 Ports and energy
		1 The origin of energy markets
		2 Main port energy markets
			2.1 Coal
			2.2 Petroleum
			2.3 Natural gas
			2.4 Bunker fuel
		3 The maritime shipping of energy
		4 Energy and ports
	Chapter 8.4 Containers
		1 The box market
		2 Empty container flows
		3 Repositioning scales
		4 Repositioning strategies
		5 The digitalization of containers
	Chapter 8.5 Port cold chains
		1 Cold chain logistics
		2 Refrigerated containers
			2.1 The reefer market
			2.2 Technical considerations
		3 Reefer terminal facilities
Epilog
	1 Dealing with volatility and shifts in port demand
	2 International and regional functions of ports
	3 Leading the way in environmental and social challenges
	4 Agile ports thinking
	5 The changing face of port competition
	6 Towards a multi-scalar approach to port performance
	7 The search for the right port governance
	8 Sustaining functional diversity
	9 A note from the authors