Policy, Identity, and Neurotechnology: The Neuroethics of Brain-Computer Interfaces

Contents
An Introduction to Policy, Identity, and Neurotechnology: The Neuroethics of Brain–Computer Interfaces
	1	 Overview of Part One: The Past, Present, and Future of BCI Technology
	2	 Overview of Part Two: Ethical and Philosophical Issues
	3	 Overview of Part Three: Legal and Policy Implications
	4	 Conclusion
	References
Part I: The Past, Present, and Future of BCI Technology
	Posthuman Subjectivity in BCI-VR Entanglement
		1	 Introduction
		2	 History of Brain–Computer Interfaces
		3	 Virtual Reality
		4	 The Convergence of BCI and VR in Therapy & Gaming
			4.1	 Therapy
			4.2	 Gaming
		5	 The Emergence of the Posthuman
		6	 Posthuman Subjectivity in the Human-Technology Entanglement
		7	 Conclusion
		References
	“The Trauma of Losing Your Own Identity Again”: The Ethics of Explantation of Brain–Computer Interfaces
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Explantations and Why They Are Done
		3	 “You Are Experiencing That Trauma of Losing Your Own Identity Again”: The Testimony of An Expected Explantee
		4	 Implantation, Explantation, and PIAAAS Change
		5	 Recommendations
		6	 Conclusion
		References
	Ethical Considerations of Endovascular Brain–Computer Interfaces
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Safety of Endovascular BCIs
		3	 Efficacy of Endovascular BCIs
			3.1	 Comparisons with Other Sensor Types
			3.2	 Longitudinal Assessments
			3.3	 Endovascular Neurostimulation
		4	 Endovascular BCI Permanency
			4.1	 Nonmaleficence
			4.2	 Beneficence
			4.3	 Justice
			4.4	 Autonomy
		5	 Informed Consent for Endovascular BCIs
		6	 Ethical Considerations of Industry Funded Endovascular BCI Research
		7	 Conclusion
		References
	Future Developments in Brain/Neural–Computer Interface Technology
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Modes of Operation and Applications of Brain/Neural–Computer Interfaces
		3	 Next-Generation Brain/Neural–Computer and Machine Interfaces
		4	 Merging Brain/Neural–Computer Interfaces with Artificial Intelligence
		5	 Neuroethical Perspective
		6	 Summary and Conclusions
		References
	A Path to Science Fiction Style Technology Applications? The Example of Brain-to-Brain Interfaces
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Brain-to-Brain Interfaces: State of the Art
		3	 Factors Driving BBI Technology Development
			3.1	 Potential Future Markets
			3.2	 Science Fiction Scenarios
			3.3	 Enhancement and Transhumanism
			3.4	 Social Network Analogy
		4	 Shaping the Development
		5	 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Ethical and Philosophical Issues
	A Scoping Review of the Academic Literature on BCI Ethics
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Ethical Concerns with BCIs
		3	 Prior Research into BCI Ethics
		4	 Recent Trends in BCI Ethics
		5	 Materials and Methods
		6	 Results
		7	 Discussion
		8	 Conclusion
		References
	Having the Ability to Have a Good Life: What Might Be the Impact of BCIs?
		1	 Introduction
		2	 The Ability to Have a Good Life
		3	 BCIs and a Good Life
		4	 The Case of Disabled People
		5	 STEM Education
		6	 Method
		7	 Limitations
		8	 Results
			8.1	 Demographic Results
		9	 Familiarity with BCI
		10	 Participants’ Views on the Impact of BCI on Various Social Groups
		11	 Participants Views on the Impact of BCIs on the Indicators from the Social Determinants of Health, OECD Better Life Index, Canadian Index of Wellbeing, and Community Based Rehabilitation Matrix
		12	 Discussion
		13	 Adding Indicators
		14	 Future Research
		15	 Conclusion
		Appendix
		References
	Cyborg Virtues: Using Brain Stimulation for Moral Enhancement
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Brain Stimulation and Brain–Computer Interfaces
		3	 A Neurologically Grounded Model of the Virtues
			3.1	 Self-Control and Addiction
			3.2	 Intelligence, Memory, and Learning
			3.3	 Empathy and Pro-Social Behavior
			3.4	 Fairness
			3.5	 Positive Mood and Depression
			3.6	 Selflessness and Transcendent Experiences
		4	 The Ethics of Neuromodulating for Moral Enhancement
		References
	Brain Co-processors: Ethical and Social Implications
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Brain Co-processors
			2.1	 Examples of Brain Co-processors
				2.1.1	 Sensory Restoration
				2.1.2	 Closed-Loop Prosthetic Control
				2.1.3	 Reanimating Paralyzed Limbs
				2.1.4	 Neuromodulation for Restoring Motor and Cognitive Function
				2.1.5	 Inducing Plasticity and Rewiring the Brain
				2.1.6	 Enhancing Memory
				2.1.7	 Brain-to-Brain Interfaces
			2.2	 Applications of Brain Co-processors
				2.2.1	 Medical Applications
				2.2.2	 Non-medical Applications: Augmenting Human Function
		3	 Ethical, Moral, and Social Justice Implications of Brain Co-processors
			3.1	 Health, Safety, and Full Life Cycle Design
			3.2	 Identity and Agency
			3.3	 Security and Privacy
			3.4	 Legal Issues
			3.5	 Moral and Social Justice Issues
		4	 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Legal and Policy Implications
	United States Policy on BCIs: Funding Research, Regulating Therapies, and Commercializing Consumer Technology
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Ethical Issues of BCIs
		3	 Public Policy Context
		4	 BCI Policy Making in USA
		5	 Reports on BCIs
		6	 Public Funding of BCI Research in the USA
		7	 Regulating BCIs in the USA
		8	 Commercialization of BCIs
		9	 Summary
		References
	Memory Enhancement and  Brain–Computer Interface Devices: Technological Possibilities and Constitutional Challenges
		1	 Introduction
		2	 BCI Technology: An Overview
		3	 Constitutional and Other Legal Implications
			3.1	 A Framework for Beginning to Think About the Legal Implications of BCI
			3.2	 Transforming Memory Capacity
			3.3	 Transforming Memory Content
		4	 Conclusion
		References
	Cyberneurosecurity
		1	 Introduction
		2	 Cyberbiosecurity
		3	 Brain–Computer Interfaces
		4	 Neurosecurity
		5	 Neurorights
		6	 Neurohype?
		7	 Cyberneurosecurity: How Cyberbiosecurity Specifically Applies to BCIs
		8	 BCI Data Hacking
		9	 Specific Cases of Cyberneurosecurity Concerns in Medical, Recreational, and Employment Uses of BCI
		10	 Self-Hacking
		11	 Countermeasures
		12	 Conclusions
		References
	Perspectives of Current FDA Guidance on BCI Technology
		1	 Regulatory Role and Scope of the FDA and BCI Regulation
		2	 FDA Guidance of BCI
			2.1	 Device Description
			2.2	 Risk Management
			2.3	 Software
			2.4	 Human Factors
			2.5	 Biocompatibility
			2.6	 Sterility
			2.7	 Pyrogenicity
			2.8	 Shelf Life and Packaging
			2.9	 Electrical Safety and Electromagnetic Compatibility
			2.10	 Wireless Technology
			2.11	 Magnetic Resonance (MR) Compatibility
			2.12	 Non-clinical Bench Testing
			2.13	 Referencing Master Files (MAF) and Other FDA Premarket Submissions
			2.14	 Non-clinical Animal Testing
			2.15	 Clinical Performance Testing
		3	 Implications of the FDA Guidance
		4	 Conclusions
		References
	Neurotechnology, Stakeholders, and Neuroethics: Real Decisions and Trade-Offs from an Insider’s Perspective
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Why Focus on Smaller Companies?
			1.2	 How Hard Is Neurotechnology Development?
		2	 What Is Neuroethics?
			2.1	 Neurable: Who Are We?
		3	 Stakeholders
			3.1	 Companies
			3.2	 Investors
			3.3	 Academia
			3.4	 General Public
			3.5	 Customers
			3.6	 End Users
			3.7	 Government
		4	 Case Studies
			4.1	 Building a Profitable Company Versus Building a Company We Want
			4.2	 Differing Strategies to Research and Development: Agile vs Conservative
		5	 Conclusion
		References