Polarimetric SAR imaging: theory and applications

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Series Page......Page 3
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 12
Acknowledgments......Page 14
Author......Page 16
  1.1.1 Difference of Optical and Microwave Sensors......Page 18
  1.1.2 Radar Remote Sensing......Page 20
 1.2 Applications of SAR Technology......Page 21
 1.3 Importance of Polarimetric Response......Page 22
 1.4 Brief History of Radar Polarimetry......Page 23
  1.5.1 Airborne SAR Systems......Page 25
  1.5.2 Spaceborne PolSAR Systems......Page 26
 1.6 The Scope of This Book......Page 28
 References......Page 30
  2.1.1 Maxwell’s Equation and Wave Equation......Page 34
  2.1.2 The Vector Wave Equation and Its Solution Using Phasor Representation......Page 36
   2.1.2.1 Separation of Variables......Page 37
   2.1.2.2 Physical Interpretation of the Solution......Page 38
  2.1.3 Transverse Electromagnetic Wave......Page 40
  2.1.4 TEM Wave Power......Page 42
  2.2.1 Mathematical Expression......Page 43
  2.2.2 Representation by Geometrical Parameters......Page 46
  2.2.3 Jones Vector Representation......Page 50
  2.2.4 Stokes Vector Representation......Page 52
   2.2.4.1 Stokes Vector for Completely Polarized Wave......Page 53
   2.2.4.2 Stokes Vector for Partially Polarized Wave......Page 56
  2.2.5 Polarization Parameters and Poincaré Sphere......Page 57
  2.2.6 Polarization Vector......Page 59
  2.2.7 Covariance Matrix for Partially Polarized Wave......Page 61
 2.3 Relations Among Polarization Parameters and Summary......Page 63
 Appendix......Page 64
 References......Page 66
Chapter 3: Scattering Polarimetry......Page 68
  3.1.1 Friis Transmission Equation and Radar Range Equation......Page 69
  3.1.2 Maximum Detectable Range......Page 71
  3.1.3 Radar Cross Section (RCS)......Page 72
  3.1.4 Backscattering from Distributed Target......Page 74
  3.1.5 Scattering by Polarization......Page 75
 3.2 Reciprocity Theorem......Page 76
 3.3 Receiving Voltage......Page 78
  3.4.1 Definition of Scattering Matrix......Page 80
 3.5 Fundamental Equation of Radar Polarimetry......Page 82
  3.6.1 Receiving Power by Polarization Ratio......Page 83
  3.6.2 Receiving Power of the Polarimetric Radar Channel Using Polarization Ratio and Geometrical Parameters......Page 85
  3.6.3 Receiving Power by the Stokes Vector......Page 86
 3.7 Polarization Signature......Page 89
 3.8 Characteristic Polarization State......Page 91
  3.8.1 The Number of Characteristic Polarization States and Their Relations......Page 92
  3.8.2 Receiving Power by Characteristic Polarization State......Page 93
 3.9 Polarimetric Filtering by Characteristic Polarization States......Page 94
  3.9.1 Two Orthogonal Wire Image......Page 96
  3.9.2 Contrast Enhancement by Polarization......Page 98
   3.9.3.1 Applications to Ground-Penetrating Radar......Page 102
 References......Page 103
 4.1 Scattering Matrix Data......Page 106
 4.2 Scattering Matrix Transformation......Page 109
 4.3 Scattering Vector......Page 111
 4.4 Ensemble Average of Polarization Matrix......Page 113
  4.5.1 Covariance Matrix in the Linear HV Basis......Page 116
  4.5.2 Covariance Matrix in the Circular LR Basis......Page 121
 4.6 Coherency Matrix by Integration......Page 123
 4.8 Polarization Matrices of Canonical Targets......Page 127
  4.9.1 Relation Between Covariance Matrix and Coherency Matrix......Page 128
 Appendix......Page 130
 References......Page 133
 5.1 Eigenvalues, Entropy, and Mean Alpha Angle......Page 136
 5.2 Some Parameters by Eigenvalues......Page 137
 5.3 Simple Calculation Method of Entropy......Page 140
 5.4 Application to Classification......Page 141
 5.5 Classification Results......Page 143
 References......Page 144
 6.1 Introduction......Page 146
  6.2.1 Examples of Compound Scattering Matrices......Page 148
  6.3.2 Compound Scattering Matrix in the Azimuth Direction......Page 152
 6.4 Compound Scattering Matrix Measurement......Page 154
 References......Page 159
 7.1 Introduction......Page 160
 7.3 T11: Surface Scattering......Page 162
 7.4 T22: Double-Bounce Scattering......Page 163
  7.5.1 Volume Scattering by Vegetation......Page 164
  7.5.2 Volume Scattering by Oriented Surface......Page 166
 7.6 Im{T23}: Helix Scattering......Page 168
  7.7.1 ALOS2 Image Analysis......Page 169
  7.7.2 Oriented Surface Measurement in an Anechoic Chamber......Page 170
 7.8 Re{T13}: Oriented Dipole Scattering......Page 171
 7.10 Re{T12}: Scattering......Page 172
 7.11 Im{T12}: Scattering......Page 173
 7.12 Scattering Models for Nine Parameters of Coherency Matrix......Page 174
 References......Page 176
Chapter 8: Scattering Power Decomposition......Page 178
 8.1 Preparation......Page 179
 8.2 FDD 3-Component Decomposition......Page 180
 8.3 Y40 4-Component Decomposition......Page 182
  8.4.1 Minimization of the HV Component......Page 184
  8.4.2 Y4R Decomposition......Page 188
  8.4.3 S4R Decomposition......Page 190
 8.5 G4U......Page 193
 8.6 6SD......Page 198
 8.7 7SD......Page 203
 8.8 Color-Coding......Page 208
 Appendix......Page 210
 References......Page 213
Chapter 9: Correlation and Similarity......Page 216
 9.1 Covariance Matrix and Correlation Coefficient......Page 217
 9.2 Correlation Coefficient in the Circular Polarization Basis......Page 218
 9.3 Correlation Coefficient in the 45°- and 135°-Oriented Linear Polarization Basis......Page 219
 9.5 Correlation Coefficient in the Pauli Basis......Page 220
  9.6.1 Magnitude of Correlation Coefficient......Page 221
  9.6.3 Correlation Coefficient Versus Scatterer......Page 222
  9.6.4 Phase Information of Correlation Coefficient......Page 223
  9.7.2 Distribution of the Correlation Coefficient......Page 224
  9.8.1 Oriented Urban Area with Non-Reflection Symmetry Condition......Page 225
  9.8.3 Combination of Power and Correlation Coefficients......Page 226
   9.8.3.1 Water Surface Detection......Page 227
   9.8.3.2 Urban Area Detection......Page 228
 9.9 Extended Similarity and Its Applications......Page 231
  9.9.2 Classification Results......Page 234
 References......Page 236
Chapter 10: Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar......Page 238
 10.1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)......Page 239
  10.1.1 SAR Principle......Page 240
  10.1.2 Range Compression......Page 242
  10.1.3 Range Resolution .R......Page 246
  10.1.5 Range Profile After Compression......Page 247
  10.1.6 Azimuth Compression Technique = Synthetic Aperture Processing (SAR Processing)......Page 248
  10.1.7 Two-Dimensional SAR......Page 251
   10.1.8.1 On Synthetic Aperture Width......Page 252
 10.2 Polarimetric FMCW Radar......Page 254
  10.2.1 FMCW Hardware......Page 255
  10.2.2 Equivalent Sensitivity Time Control Technique......Page 259
  10.2.3 Real-Time Polarimetric FMCW Radar......Page 261
 10.3 Polarimetric Holo-SAR......Page 263
 Appendix......Page 266
 References......Page 269
Chapter 11: Material Constant......Page 272
  11.1.2 Ice......Page 274
  11.1.4 Soil......Page 275
  11.1.7 Flame (Plasma)......Page 276
 11.2 Polarization Transformation by Flat Ground Surface and Permittivity of the Ground......Page 277
 References......Page 279
Chapter 12: Interpretation of PolSAR Images......Page 280
 12.1 SAR Image Interpretation......Page 281
  12.1.1 Scattering Scenario......Page 285
  12.1.2 How Fine Is Fine?......Page 287
  12.1.3 Frequency Response......Page 288
  12.1.4 Window Size Response......Page 289
  12.1.5 Time Series Data......Page 290
 References......Page 292
Chapter 13: Surface Scattering......Page 294
 13.1 Scattering from Rough Surfaces......Page 296
  13.2.1 Validation by ALOS and ALOS2 Data......Page 297
  13.2.2 RCS Magnitude......Page 299
  13.2.3 Polarization Signature of Bragg Scattering in Paddy Field......Page 300
 13.3 Modeling of the Surface Scattering......Page 301
  13.4.1 Tsunami......Page 302
  13.4.2 Landslide......Page 304
  13.4.3 Volcano Activity Monitoring......Page 305
 13.5 Remarks......Page 308
 References......Page 309
 14.1 Dihedral......Page 312
  14.1.1 Dependency on Incidence Angle......Page 314
  14.1.3 Role as a Polarimetric Calibration Target......Page 315
  14.1.5 Dependency on Squint Angle......Page 316
  14.2.1 Lotus in the Lake......Page 319
  14.2.3 Detection of Building Collapse......Page 320
  14.2.5 Oyster Farming and Tidal Level......Page 322
   14.2.6.1 Open Space Situations......Page 324
   14.2.6.3 Flooding Effect: Scattering from Riverbed......Page 325
  14.2.7 Land Use......Page 326
 Flooding References......Page 329
 15.1 Forest Mapping......Page 332
  15.1.1 Frequency Characteristics of Forest Volume Scattering......Page 334
  15.1.2 Scattering Center......Page 335
  15.1.3 Tree-Type Classification......Page 336
 15.2 Conifer and Broad-Leaf Tree Classification......Page 337
  15.2.1 Conifer and Broad-Leaf Tree Measurement in an Anechoic Chamber......Page 338
 15.3 Landslide Detection in Vegetated Mountains......Page 341
 15.4 Wetland Monitoring......Page 342
  15.4.1 Study Area......Page 343
  15.4.3 Discussion......Page 344
 15.6 Remarks......Page 345
 References......Page 346
Index......Page 348