Polar Oxides Properties, Characterization, and Imaging

Polar Oxides Properties, Characterization, and Imaging......Page 4
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 15
1.1 Introduction......Page 16
1.2.1 Macroscopic and microscopic view......Page 18
1.2.2 Mechanisms of polarization......Page 20
1.3 Ferroelectric polarization......Page 22
1.4.1 Ginzburg-Landau Theory......Page 23
1.4.2 Soft Mode Concept......Page 27
1.5.1 Basic Compositions......Page 29
1.5.2 Grain Size effects......Page 31
1.5.3 Influence of Substitutes and Dopants......Page 32
1.6 Ferroelectric Domains......Page 35
1.6.1 Reversible and Irreversible Polarization Contributions......Page 37
1.6.2 Ferroelectric Switching......Page 40
Bibliography......Page 42
2.1 Important piezoelectric constants......Page 44
2.2 Measurements in bulk materials......Page 48
2.3 Measurements in thin films......Page 51
2.4 Conclusions......Page 55
Bibliography......Page 57
3.2 Measurement methods......Page 58
3.2.1 Sawyer Tower method......Page 61
3.2.3 Virtual ground method......Page 62
3.3.1 Hysteresis loop and characteristic values......Page 63
3.3.2 Dynamic hysteresis measurement......Page 64
3.3.3 Pulse measurement......Page 66
3.3.4 Static hysteresis measurement......Page 68
3.3.5 Leakage measurement......Page 70
3.3.6 Fatigue measurement......Page 71
3.3.7 Imprint measurement......Page 73
3.3.8 Retention measurement......Page 76
3.3.9 Small signal measurements......Page 78
Bibliography......Page 79
4.1 Introduction: Light propagation within anisotropic crystals......Page 82
4.1.1 Huyghens’s construction for uniaxial crystals......Page 83
4.1.2 The uniaxial indicatrix......Page 85
4.2 The electro-optic effect......Page 88
4.2.1 Ferroelectrics have anisotropic electronic bonds: Birefringence......Page 89
4.2.2 Applied fields change the optical pathlength: Phase modulators......Page 92
4.2.3 Optical waveguides improve the device efficiency......Page 94
4.3 Non-linear optics......Page 98
4.3.1 Nonlinear optical media......Page 99
4.3.2 The nonlinear wave equation......Page 100
4.3.3 Second order nonlinear optics......Page 101
Bibliography......Page 103
5.1 Introduction......Page 104
5.2 Basic relations defining microwave properties of dielectrics and normal/superconducting metals......Page 105
5.4 Surface impedance of high-temperature superconductor films......Page 106
5.5 Microwave properties of dielectric single crystals, ceramics and thin films......Page 108
5.6 General remarks about microwave material measurements......Page 113
5.7 Non resonant microwave measurement techniques......Page 114
5.8 Resonator measurement techniques......Page 115
Bibliography......Page 122
6.1 Introduction......Page 124
6.2.2 Method of X-ray diffraction......Page 127
6.3.1 Structural characterization of PZT 52/48 thin film......Page 132
6.3.2 Distinguishing SBTN phase from fluorite–SBTN phase......Page 136
6.3.3 Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction study on PZT 52/48 thin films......Page 137
6.4 Conclusions......Page 139
Bibliography......Page 140
7.1 Introduction......Page 142
7.2 Experimental......Page 143
7.3.1 Quantitative analysis of the F(T) and F(R) phase content......Page 144
7.3.2 Temperature induced F(R) ↔ F(T) phase transition......Page 147
7.3.3 Analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic contributions to the macroscopic strain......Page 150
7.4 Summary......Page 154
Bibliography......Page 155
8.1 Introduction......Page 156
8.2 Growth of ultrathin ferroelectric films......Page 157
8.3 Observation of nanoscale 180° stripe domains......Page 159
Bibliography......Page 165
9.1 Introduction......Page 168
9.2.1 The relaxor-ferroelectric Sr(x)Ba(1–x)Nb(2)O(6)......Page 170
9.2.2 Observation of photo-induced light scattering in SBN......Page 172
9.2.3 Description of photo-induced light scattering in SBN......Page 173
9.3.1 Experimental setup......Page 177
9.3.2 Spatial distribution of the scattering intensity......Page 178
9.3.3 Investigating the relaxor-kind phase transition......Page 179
9.3.4 Determination of material parameters: gain factor Γ, effective electro-optic coefficient (ζ · r(eff)) and effective trap density N(eff)......Page 182
9.3.5 Investigating ferroelectric properties......Page 184
9.3.6 Investigating the polar structure......Page 185
9.4 Summary......Page 191
Bibliography......Page 192
10 Ferroelectric Domain Breakdown: Application to Nanodomain Technology......Page 194
10.1 Introduction......Page 195
10.2.1 Technological demands for FE domain-based devices......Page 196
10.2.2 Physical limit of domain dimensions in FE......Page 197
10.3.1 Nanoscale switching electrode......Page 198
10.3.2 Low and high voltage AFM for nanodomain reversal in FE bulk crystals......Page 200
10.3.3 Indirect electron beam induced ferroelectric domain breakdown......Page 203
10.4.1 Domain shapes under FDB......Page 207
10.4.2 The domain shape invariant......Page 211
10.4.4 Ferroelectric domain breakdown mechanism......Page 213
10.5 Nanodomain superlattices tailored by multiple tip arrays of HVAFM......Page 215
10.6 Conclusions......Page 221
Bibliography......Page 222
11.1 Introduction......Page 226
11.2.1 Pyroelectric response......Page 227
11.2.2 Comparison of noise and signal......Page 230
11.2.4 The piezoelectric effect in pyroelectric detectors......Page 231
11.3.1 Dielectric properties......Page 232
11.3.2 Pyroelectric properties......Page 233
11.3.5 Piezoelectric property determination......Page 236
11.4 Pyroelectric materials and their selection......Page 237
11.5 Pyroelectric ceramics and thin films......Page 239
Bibliography......Page 243
12.1 Introduction......Page 246
12.2.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM)......Page 247
12.2.3 Pull-off force spectroscopy (PFS)......Page 248
12.4.1 Polarization profile across the PZT film......Page 249
12.4.3 Local dielectric constant at the PZT surface......Page 252
12.5 Conlusion......Page 253
Bibliography......Page 254
13.1 Introduction......Page 256
13.2.1 Optical techniques for measurements of the converse effect......Page 257
13.2.2 Dynamic press for the measurements of direct effect......Page 259
13.3 Investigation of the piezoelectric nonlinearity in PZT thin films using optical interferometry......Page 260
13.4.1 Maxwell-Wagner piezoelectric relaxation and clockwise hysteresis......Page 262
13.4.2 Piezoelectric relaxation and Kramers-Kronig relations in a modified lead titanate composition......Page 263
13.4.3 Evidence of creep-like piezoelectric response in soft PZT ceramics......Page 264
Bibliography......Page 266
14.2 Dielectric nonlinear series-resonance circuit......Page 268
14.4 Tools of the nonlinear dynamics......Page 269
14.5 Experimental representation of phase portraits......Page 270
14.6 Comparison of calculated and experimentally observed phase portraits......Page 271
14.7 Controlling chaos......Page 274
14.8 Summary......Page 278
Bibliography......Page 279
15.1 Introduction......Page 280
15.2 Polar nanoregions......Page 284
15.3 Cubic relaxors......Page 288
15.4 Role of pressure......Page 290
15.5 Dynamics of the dipolar slowing-down process......Page 293
15.6 Uniaxial relaxors......Page 296
15.7 Domain dynamics in uniaxial relaxors......Page 297
Bibliography......Page 304
16.1 Introduction......Page 308
16.2.1 Principle and theory for SNDM......Page 309
16.2.2 Nonlinear dielectric imaging......Page 311
16.2.3 Comparison between SNDM imaging and piezo-response imaging......Page 313
16.2.4 Observation of domain walls in PZT thin film using SNDM......Page 315
16.3 Higher order nonlinear dielectric microscopy......Page 317
16.3.1 Theory for higher order nonlinear dielectric microscopy......Page 318
16.3.2 Experimental details of higher order nonlinear dielectric microscopy......Page 319
16.4.1 Principle and measurement system......Page 321
16.4.2 Experimental results......Page 322
16.5 Ultra High-Density Ferroelectric Data Storage Using Scanning Nonlinear Dielectric Microscopy......Page 324
16.5.2 Nano-domain formation in LiTaO(3) single crystal......Page 325
16.6 Conclusions......Page 329
Bibliography......Page 332
17.1 Introduction......Page 334
17.2 Sample preparation......Page 335
17.3 Contact problems......Page 337
17.4 Parasitic capacitance......Page 341
17.5 In-situ compensation......Page 342
Bibliography......Page 346
18.1 Introduction......Page 348
18.2 Polycrystalline ferroelectric PTO thin films on platinized silicon substrates......Page 349
18.3 Separated lead titanate nano-grains......Page 353
18.4 Conclusion......Page 357
Bibliography......Page 358
19.1.1 Fatigue in FeRAM: macroscopic results invoking nano scale features......Page 360
19.1.2 Piezoelectric characterization at nano scale of ferroelectric thin films......Page 364
19.2.1 Appearance of frozen polarization nano domains......Page 366
19.2.2 Nano scale hysteresis loops of fatigued FeCaps......Page 369
19.3.1 Downscaling of ferroelectric capacitors......Page 372
19.3.2 Size induced polarization instability......Page 373
19.4.1 Removable electrodes......Page 376
19.4.2 Inversely-polarized nanodomains......Page 377
Bibliography......Page 382
Authors......Page 384
Index......Page 386