Plant Signaling Molecules: Role and Regulation under Stressful Environments

Front Cover......Page 1
Plant Signaling Molecules......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
List of Contributors......Page 12
 1.1 Introduction......Page 16
  1.2.1 Plant Response to Salinity: Signaling Pathway at Tissue and Organ Level......Page 17
  1.2.2 Temporal Signature and Related Cell Response Mechanisms......Page 19
  1.3.1 Stomatal Conductance and Water Relations......Page 23
  1.3.2 Photosynthesis......Page 26
 References......Page 27
 2.1 Introduction......Page 34
 2.2 Signaling Molecules Under Stress Conditions......Page 40
 2.3 Signaling Molecules and Plant Responses Under Combined Stress Conditions......Page 44
 2.4 DNA Damage of Plants Under Concurrent of Abiotic and Biotic Stress Combinations......Page 48
 2.5 Genomic and Biochemical Approaches for Plants Under Combined Stresses......Page 49
 References......Page 51
 3.1 Introduction......Page 58
 3.2 Stress Signal Sensors......Page 59
 3.4 Osmotic Stress Sensors......Page 60
 3.5 ABA Signaling Pathway......Page 66
 3.6 Calcium Sensors and Signaling......Page 68
 3.7 ROS Signaling......Page 69
 Acknowledgement......Page 70
 References......Page 71
 Further Reading......Page 77
4 Genetic Engineering/Genome Editing Approaches to Modulate Signaling Processes in Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 78
 4.2 Plant Response to Abiotic Stress in Developing Tolerance......Page 79
  4.2.1 Late Embryogenesis Abundant Proteins......Page 80
  4.2.4 Role of Protein Kinases in Response to Abiotic Stress......Page 81
  4.2.5 Cross-Talk Signaling of Jasmonate and Ethylene Biosynthesis in Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 82
   4.3.1.2 Aquaporin Genes Associated With Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 83
   4.3.1.4 Epigenetic Regulation of Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 85
   4.3.1.6 Genetic Engineering of Helicases in Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 86
   4.3.1.7 Genetic Engineering of Small RNAs for Abiotic Stress Responses......Page 88
  4.4.3 CRISPR-Cas9 Genome Editing......Page 89
 4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects......Page 90
 References......Page 92
5 Measurement of Signaling Molecules Calcium Ion, Reactive Sulfur Species, Reactive Carbonyl Species, Reactive Nitrogen Spe.........Page 98
  5.2.1 Method 1: MTB Method......Page 99
  5.3.1 Method 1: DTNB Method......Page 100
  5.3.2 Method 2: MB Method......Page 101
  5.4.1 Method 1: DAB Method......Page 102
  5.4.2 Method 2: DNP Method......Page 103
  5.4.4 Method 4: DAF-2 and DAR-1 Fluorescence Methods......Page 104
  5.5.1 Method 1: Griess Reagent Method......Page 105
  5.6.1 Method 1: KI Method......Page 106
  5.6.2 Method 2: Ti(SO4)2 Method......Page 107
  5.6.4 Method 4: ABTS Method......Page 108
   5.6.5.1 In Vivo Method......Page 109
  5.6.7 Method 7: DCFH2-DA and DCF Fluorescence Methods......Page 110
   5.6.7.2 In Vitro Method: (DCF Method)......Page 111
  5.6.9 Method 9: BES-H2O2-Ac and BES-H2O2 Fluorescence Method......Page 112
   5.7.1.1 Spectrophotometric Method......Page 113
  5.7.2 Method 2: XTT Method......Page 114
  5.7.3 Method 3: BESSo-AM and BESSo Fluorescence Methods......Page 115
  5.8.2 Method 2: 2-deoxy-d-Ribose Method......Page 116
 References......Page 117
 Further Reading......Page 118
6 Drought Tolerance in Plants: Molecular Mechanism and Regulation of Signaling Molecules......Page 120
 6.1 Introduction......Page 121
  6.2.1 Proline......Page 122
  6.2.5 Dehydrins......Page 123
  6.3.1 Enzymatic ROS Regulation During Drought......Page 124
  6.3.2 Nonenzymatic ROS Regulation During Drought......Page 125
  6.4.1 Auxin......Page 126
  6.4.4 Abscisic Acid......Page 127
  6.4.6 Brassinosteroids......Page 128
 6.5 Molecular Mechanism of Regulatory Elements in Drought Stress......Page 129
  6.5.2 Ethylene Response Element-Binding Factors (AP2/ERF) Family......Page 130
  6.5.5 NAC Transcription Factor Family......Page 131
 References......Page 132
 Further Reading......Page 138
 7.1 Introduction......Page 140
 7.2 Transcription Factors Associated With Signaling Mechanism......Page 142
  7.2.1 Dehydration Responsive Element Binding Proteins......Page 143
  7.2.3 NAC Transcription Factor......Page 144
  7.3.1 Protein Kinases......Page 145
  7.3.2 Receptor-Like Kinases......Page 146
 7.4 Modulation of Key Genes Involved in Phytohormone Signaling......Page 147
 7.5 Engineering of Osmoregulatory Genes......Page 148
 7.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects......Page 149
 References......Page 150
 8.1 Introduction......Page 156
 8.2 Reactive Oxygen Species as Signaling Molecules......Page 157
  8.3.1 Process of Reactive Oxygen Species Signaling in Plants......Page 159
  8.4.1 Lipids......Page 160
  8.4.3 DNA......Page 161
  8.5.1 Reactive Oxygen Species-Induced Posttranslational Modifications......Page 162
   8.5.1.2 Protein Carbonylation......Page 163
   8.5.1.4 Sulfur Glutathionylation......Page 164
 8.6 Role of Antioxidants and Its Signaling in Abiotic Stress......Page 165
 References......Page 167
 Further Reading......Page 171
 9.1 Introduction......Page 172
 9.4 Phenolics and Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 173
  9.4.1 Phenolics as Ultraviolet Sunscreens......Page 176
  9.4.2 Plant Phenolics and Their Role in Heavy Metal Stress......Page 177
  9.4.5 Plant Phenolics and Their Role in Nutrient Stress......Page 178
 References......Page 179
 Further Reading......Page 183
 10.1 Introduction......Page 184
 10.2 The Role of Ascorbic Acid, Carotenoids, and Flavonoids in Stress Signaling......Page 185
 10.3 Amino Acids and Derivates Under Stress......Page 186
 10.4 Poly- and Oligosaccharides and Plant Responses......Page 189
 10.6 Melatonin Bioactive Molecule in the Regulation of Abiotic Stress......Page 190
  10.6.1 Melatonin Biosynthesis and Its Level Under Stressful Conditions......Page 191
 References......Page 192
 Further Reading......Page 197
 11.1 Introduction......Page 198
 11.2 Abiotic Stress and Physiological Changes in the Phenylpropanoid Pathway......Page 199
 11.3 Water Stress......Page 200
 11.5 Salinity Stress and Phenylpropanoids Accumulation......Page 201
 11.7 Senescence......Page 202
  11.9.1 Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase and Chalcone Synthase Transcriptional Induction......Page 203
  11.9.2 Anthocyanidin Synthase Transcriptional Changes......Page 204
 References......Page 205
 Further Reading......Page 207
 12.1 Introduction......Page 208
 12.2 Salt Stress Effects on Plants......Page 209
 12.4 Role of Glucose in Salt Stress Responses......Page 210
 12.5 Glucose and Phytohormones Under Salt Stress......Page 216
 References......Page 217
 13.1 Introduction......Page 222
  13.1.1 Sugars as Signaling Molecules......Page 223
   13.1.1.3 Oligogalacturonides......Page 226
 13.2 Kinases as Enzyme Sensors......Page 227
 13.4 Sugar Signaling and Plant Metabolism......Page 228
 Conclusion......Page 229
 References......Page 230
 Further Reading......Page 232
 14.1 Introduction......Page 234
  14.2.1 Nonenzymatic Pathway: A Key Player......Page 235
 14.4 MG Signaling Triggered by Environmental Stress in Plants......Page 236
  14.5.1 Salt Tolerance......Page 237
  14.5.2 Drought Tolerance......Page 239
  14.5.3 Heavy Metal Stress Tolerance......Page 240
  14.5.5 Chilling Tolerance......Page 241
 14.6 Abiotic Stress Tolerance Improved by Overexpressing Glyoxalase Genes......Page 242
 14.8 Signaling Crosstalk Between MG and Ca2+, ROS, NO, and H2S......Page 243
 14.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects......Page 244
 References......Page 245
 15.1 Introduction......Page 250
 15.3 Trehalose as a Protectant Against Abiotic Stresses......Page 251
 15.4 Trehalose-6-P in Plant Metabolic and Physiological Activities......Page 254
 15.6 Trehalose/Trehalose-6-P/SnRK1 System......Page 255
  15.7.1 Hypoxia......Page 258
  15.7.2 Cold......Page 260
 15.8 Concluding Remarks......Page 262
 References......Page 265
 Further Reading......Page 270
 16.1 Introduction......Page 272
 16.2 Role of Sugars in Plant Growth and Development Under In Vitro Conditions......Page 273
 16.4 Physiological Approaches of Sugar Signaling in Plants......Page 275
 16.5 Molecular and Genetic Approaches of Sugar Regulation in Plants......Page 276
 16.6 Importance of Sugar Interaction With Phytohormones in Regulation of Growth and Development Under In Vitro Condition......Page 279
 References......Page 281
 Further Reading......Page 283
 17.1 Introduction......Page 284
  17.2.1 Nitrogen......Page 285
  17.2.2 Sulfur......Page 286
  17.2.3 Potassium......Page 288
 17.3 Phosphorous......Page 291
 17.4 Calcium......Page 293
 References......Page 295
 Further Reading......Page 300
 18.1 Introduction......Page 302
  18.2.1 Sulfur Assimilation......Page 303
  18.2.2 Sulfur Transport Mechanism in Plants......Page 304
 18.3 Crosstalk Between Sulfur and Phytohormones......Page 305
  18.3.1 Auxin......Page 306
  18.3.4 Gibberellic Acid......Page 307
  18.3.7 Salicylic Acid......Page 308
 18.4 Conclusion......Page 309
 References......Page 310
 Further Reading......Page 316
 19.1 Introduction......Page 318
 19.2 Perception and Transduction of Signals......Page 319
   19.3.1.1 Role of Abscisic Acid Under Water Stress......Page 320
   19.3.1.3 Role of Ethylene Under Water Stress......Page 321
  19.3.5 UV Radiation......Page 322
  19.3.6 Crosstalk of Different Hormones......Page 326
 19.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects......Page 327
 References......Page 328
 Further Reading......Page 332
 20.1 Introduction......Page 334
   20.1.2.1 Drought Stress......Page 335
   20.1.2.3 Temperature Stress......Page 337
   20.1.2.4 Nutrient Deficiency Stress......Page 338
   20.1.2.5 Heavy Metal Stress......Page 340
 20.2 Conclusion......Page 341
 References......Page 342
 21.1 Introduction......Page 348
 21.2 Gibberellic Acid Metabolism in Plants......Page 349
 21.4 The Signaling Crosstalks Between Gibberellic Acids and Related Phytohormones......Page 350
 21.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives......Page 352
 References......Page 353
 22.1 Introduction......Page 356
 22.2 ABA Biosynthesis......Page 357
 22.3 Catabolism of ABA......Page 358
 22.5 ABA Receptors......Page 359
 22.6 Protein Phosphatase 2C......Page 360
 22.8 ABA-Dependent Gene Expression......Page 361
 22.9 The Role of ABA in Abiotic Stress Signaling......Page 362
 References......Page 364
 Further Reading......Page 368
 23.1 Introduction......Page 370
 23.2 Biosynthetic Pathway and Modifications of Salicylic Acid......Page 371
 23.3 Role of Salicylic Acid in Plant Growth and Development......Page 372
  23.4.1 Salicylic Acid Involvement in Modulation of Redox Homeostasis......Page 373
  23.4.3 Interaction of Salicylic Acid With Mineral Nutrients and Osmoprotectant......Page 374
  23.5.3 Salicylic Acid and Gibberellic Acid......Page 376
  23.6.2 Salicylic Acid and Jasmonic Acid......Page 378
 23.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects......Page 379
 References......Page 380
 Further Reading......Page 384
 24.1 Introduction......Page 386
 24.2 Jasmonate Biosynthesis......Page 387
 24.3 Jasmonate Signaling......Page 388
 24.4 Methyl Jasmonates: Multifunctional Roles in Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 390
  24.5.1 Jasmonates Counteract Salinity Stress......Page 391
  24.5.2 Salt Stress Response Mediated by JA Signaling......Page 394
 References......Page 395
 Further Reading......Page 399
 25.1 Introduction......Page 400
   25.1.2.2 Nitrate Reductase (NR)......Page 401
  25.1.4 Modulation of Endogenous Nitric Oxide Levels in Plants......Page 402
 25.2 NO in Plant Stress Responses......Page 403
  25.2.1 NO in Drought Stress Tolerance......Page 405
  25.2.2 NO in Plant Salt Stress Tolerance......Page 406
  25.2.4 NO and High Temperature Stress Tolerance in Plants......Page 408
  25.2.5 NO and Heavy Metal Stress Tolerance in Plants......Page 409
  25.2.7 NO in UV-B Tolerance of Plants......Page 410
  25.2.9 NO in Flooding Stress Tolerance......Page 411
 25.3 NO and Phytohormones Crosstalk in Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 412
 25.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives......Page 413
 References......Page 414
 Further Reading......Page 420
 26.1 Introduction......Page 422
 26.3 Brassinosteroid Signaling in Plants......Page 423
 26.4 Transcription Factors Involved in BR Signaling......Page 424
 26.5 Role of RD26 in BR Signaling......Page 425
 26.6 BR Mediated Defense Signaling......Page 426
 26.7 BR Mediated ROS Signaling and Its Role in Plant Defense......Page 427
 References......Page 428
 Further Reading......Page 431
27 Role and Regulation of Osmolytes and ABA Interaction in Salt and Drought Stress Tolerance......Page 432
 27.2 Abscisic Acid-Sensing Mechanism of Plants and Downstream Events......Page 433
  27.3.1 Abscisic Acid–Dependent and –Independent Signaling Pathways and Proline Biosynthesis......Page 434
  27.3.2 Role of Hormones in the Regulation of P5CS and Proline Synthesis......Page 435
  27.4.1 Glycine Betaine Biosynthesis and Its Modulation by Abscisic Acid......Page 437
  27.6.1 Osmolyte Accumulation and Osmotic Adjustment During Stress......Page 438
  27.6.3 Osmolyte Accumulation and Oxidative Stress......Page 439
  27.6.5 Osmolytes and Their Metal Chelation Properties During Metal Stress......Page 441
  27.6.6 Role of Osmolytes in Membrane and Native Protein Structure Stabilizations......Page 443
  27.7.2 Proline Metabolism and Signaling Pathways in Plant Senescence......Page 444
 References......Page 445
 Further Reading......Page 451
 28.1 Introduction......Page 452
 28.2 Aftermaths of Heat Stress......Page 453
 28.3 Proline in Heat Tolerance......Page 454
 28.4 Phytohormones in Heat Tolerance......Page 455
 28.5 Role of Salicyclic Acid in Heat Tolerance......Page 456
 28.6 Interaction Between Salicyclic Acid, Ethylene, and Abscisic Acid for Heat Tolerance......Page 457
 References......Page 460
 Further Reading......Page 463
29 Osmolyte Diversity, Distribution, and Their Biosynthetic Pathways......Page 464
  29.2.2 Why Are Osmolytes Compatible?......Page 465
   29.2.3.2 Tertiary Sulfonium Compounds......Page 466
  29.3.2 Biosynthesis of Proline Derivatives......Page 467
  29.4.1 Biosynthesis of Glycine Betaine......Page 468
  29.4.2 Biosynthesis of Glycine Betaine Derivatives......Page 469
  29.5.2 Biosynthesis of Sugar Alcohols......Page 470
 References......Page 471
 Further Reading......Page 473
 30.1 Introduction......Page 474
 30.2 Osmolyte Mediated Abiotic Stress Responses......Page 475
  30.3.1 Proline......Page 476
  30.3.2 Glycine Betaine......Page 478
  30.3.3 Polyamines......Page 480
  30.3.4 Sugars and Sugar Alcohols......Page 483
   30.3.4.1 Trehalose......Page 484
   30.3.4.3 Mannitol......Page 485
 30.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects......Page 486
 References......Page 487
 31.1 Introduction......Page 494
 31.2 Proteomics: Edge Over Other Technologies......Page 495
   31.3.1.1 Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (2DGE)......Page 496
   31.3.1.3 Isotope-Coded Affinity Tag (ICAT)......Page 497
  31.3.2 Targeted Proteome Analysis......Page 498
   31.3.2.3 Mass Spectrometry–Based Targeted Proteomics......Page 499
  31.6.1 Salt Overly Sensitive (SOS) Signaling Pathway......Page 500
  31.6.2 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Signaling Pathway......Page 501
  31.6.3 ABA-Signaling Pathway......Page 502
  31.6.4 Ca2+/Calmodulin (CaM) Signaling Pathway......Page 503
  31.6.6 ROS Signaling Pathway......Page 504
  31.6.7 Jasmonic Acid (JA), Ethylene (ET), and Salicylic Acid (SA) Signaling Pathways......Page 505
 31.7 Proteomics Approach in Understanding Salt Stress Signaling Pathways......Page 506
 References......Page 508
 Further Reading......Page 512
 32.1 Introduction......Page 514
  32.2.1 Small Heat Shock Proteins......Page 516
   32.2.1.3 Heat Shock Protein 90......Page 517
   32.2.1.5 Heat Shock Transcription Factors......Page 518
 32.4 Abiotic Stresses Induce the Heat Shock Protein–Mediated Signaling Pathways......Page 519
  32.4.2 Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases......Page 521
  32.4.3 Calcium and Calcium-Regulated Proteins......Page 522
 32.5 Crosstalk Between Reactive Oxygen Species, Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases Cascades, Ca+2 and Heat Shock Factor/Heat.........Page 523
 32.6 Genetic Engineering of Heat Shock Proteins Signaling Molecules......Page 524
 32.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives......Page 525
 References......Page 526
33 C4/CAM Facultative Photosynthesis as a Means to Improve Plant Sustainable Productivity Under Abiotic-Stressed Conditions.........Page 532
  33.2.1 Defining C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism......Page 533
   33.2.2.1 Carboxylation and Decarboxylation Modules......Page 534
  33.2.3 Exclusive Modules: Transfer Acid Generation and Stomatal Control......Page 536
  33.3.1 Modulation of C4 by Environmental Cues......Page 537
  33.3.2 Modulation of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism by Environmental Cues......Page 538
 33.4 Stress Signaling Networks Controlling C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism......Page 539
 33.5 C4/Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Compatibility......Page 540
  33.6.2 Parts List for Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Into C4......Page 542
 References......Page 543
 Further Reading......Page 547
 34.1 Introduction......Page 548
 34.3 Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases......Page 552
  34.3.3 MAPKs......Page 553
  34.4.1 Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases......Page 554
  34.4.2 Calcineurin B&e_02011;Like Proteins and CBL-Interacting Protein Kinases......Page 555
 34.5 Sucrose Nonfermenting 1-Related Protein Kinases......Page 556
 34.8 Genomics Efforts in Plant Protein Kinase Towards Crop Improvement......Page 557
 References......Page 558
 Further Reading......Page 562
 35.1 Introduction......Page 564
 35.2 Plant and Abiotic Stress......Page 566
  35.3.1 Drought Stress......Page 567
  35.3.2 Salinity Stress......Page 568
  35.3.4 Heat Stress......Page 569
 35.4 Signaling Mechanism of Nanoparticles During Abiotic Stress Conditions......Page 570
 References......Page 572
 Further Reading......Page 576
Index......Page 578
Back Cover......Page 597