Plant lipids : biology, utilisation, and manipulation

Contributors, Preface, 1The study and utilisation of plant lipids: from margarine to lipid rafts, 1.1 Introduction, 1.2 Early studies of plant lipids, 1.3 The chemistry era – and the definition of the term ‘lipid’, 1.4 The biochemistry era, 1.5 The molecular genetics revolution, 1.6 New frontiers – cell biology and the ’omics, 1.7 Conclusions and future prospects, 2 Fatty acid biosynthesis, 2.1 Introduction, 2.2 Carbon supply for fatty acid formation, 2.3 Acetyl-CoA carboxylase, 2.3.1 Structure of ACCase, 2.3.2 Properties of different isoforms of ACCase, 2.3.3 Herbicides acting on ACCase, 2.3.4 Genes coding for ACCase, 2.3.5 Regulation of ACCase, 2.4 Fatty acid synthase, 2.4.1 Acyl carrier protein, 2.4.2 Condensing enzymes, 2.4.3 The other component enzymes of FAS, 2.4.4 Termination of FAS, 2.4.5 Mitochondria FAS, 2.5 Regulation of fatty acid formation, 2.6 Biotechnological aspects, 3 Fatty acid manipulation, 3.1 Introduction, 3.2 The soluble A9 desaturases, 3.2.1 Engineering chain length specificity of soluble A9 desaturases, 3.2.2 Stearoyl-CoA desaturases, 3.3 Front-end desaturases, 3.4 Δ 12 Desaturase-like enzymes and their use in the modification of fatty acid residues, 3.4.1 Structures and functions, 3.4.2 Substrates and products, 3.4.3 Gene isolation, characterization and testing, 3.4.4 Rational gene design, 3.5 Segregation of novel fatty acids from membrane lipids, 3.5.1 Compartmentation of storage and membrane lipid synthesis, 3.6 Selective accumulation of novel fatty acids in oil bodies, 3.6.1 Medium-chain fatty acids, 3.6.2 Very-long-chain fatty acids, 3.6.3 Novel monoenoic fatty acids, 3.6.4 Novel fatty acids produced by diverged Fad2 enzymes, 3.6.5 Gene specific promoters for tissue specific novel fatty acid accumulation, 3.7 Structures and occurrences of hydroxy, conjugated and epoxy fatty acids in plant seed oils, 3.7.1 Hydroxy fatty acids, 3.7.2 Conjugated fatty acids, 3.7.3 Epoxy fatty acids, 4 Non-food lipids, 4.1 Introduction, 4.1.1 Structure and composition of lipids, 4.1.1.1 Simple lipids, 4.1.1.2 Triacylglycerols, 4.2 Industrial applications, 4.2.1 Industrial commodity seed oils, 4.2.1.1 Soybean oil, 4.2.1.2 Canola oil, 4.2.1.3 Sunflower oil, 4.2.1.4 Safflower oil, 4.2.1.5 Linseed oil, 4.2.1.6 Tung oil, 4.2.2 New industrial oilseed crops, 4.2.2.1 Meadowfoam oil, 4.2.2.2 Lesquerella oil, 4.2.2.3 Cuphea oil, 4.2.2.4 Crambe oil, 4.2.2.5 Jojoba wax, 4.2.3 Use of tallow and yellow grease for industrial applications, 4.3 Structural modifications, 4.3.1 Interesterification, 4.3.2 Fractionation, 4.3.2.1 Solvent fractionation, 4.3.2.2 Column chromatography, 4.3.2.3 Thin-layer chromatography, 4.3.3 Hydrogenation, 4.4 Concluding remarks, 5 Membrane lipids, 5.1 Introduction, 5.2 Structures and localisation of glycerolipids, 5.2.1 Phosphatidic acid, 5.2.2 Galactolipids, 5.2.3 Sulfolipid, 5.2.4 Phosphatidylglycerol and diphosphatidylglycerol, 5.2.5 Phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamine, 5.2.6 Phosphatidylinositol, 5.3 Biosynthesis of membrane glycerolipids, 5.3.1 Biosynthesis of phosphatidic acid, 5.3.2 Synthesis of glycerolipids from diacylglycerol or CDP-diacylglycerol, 5.3.3 Biosynthesis of galactolipids, 5.3.4 Biosynthesis of sulfolipid, 5.3.5 Biosynthesis of PG and DPG, 5.3.6 Biosynthesis of PS, PC, PE and NAPE, 5.3.7 Biosynthesis of PI Membrane lipid turnover, 5.4.1 Hydrolysis of phospholipid head groups: phospholipases C and D, 5.4.1.1 Phospholipase C, 5.4.1.2 Phospholipase D, 5.4.2 Hydrolysis of acyl groups from membrane lipids, 5.4.2.1 Phospholipase A1, 5.4.2.2 Phospholipase A2, 5.4.2.3 Lysophospholipase, 5.4.2.4 Patatin-like acyl hydrolases with phospholipase and glycolipase activities, 5.4.2.5 DAD1-like acylhydrolases, 5.4.2.6 SAG101-like acyl hydrolases and PDAT-like acyltransferases, 5.4.3 Glycolipases, 5.4.4 Fatty acyl turnover and acyl-CoA synthetases, 5.5 Physiological roles of membrane lipids, 5.5.1 Growth at high and low temperatures, 5.5.1.1 Unsaturated fatty acids, 5.5.2 The role of unsaturated molecular species of PG in chilling sensitivity, 5.5.2.1 Increase of PC synthesis during cold treatment, 5.5.3 The role of thylakoid lipids in photosynthesis, 5.5.4 Growth during phosphate deprivation, 5.6 Summary and future perspectives, 6 Storage lipids, 6.1 Introduction, 6.2 Pathways leading to triacylglycerols, 6.3 Properties and regulation of enzymes involved in triacylglycerol biosynthesis and associated phospholipid metabolism, 6.3.1 sn-Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase, 6.3.2 Lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase, 6.3.3 Phosphatidic acid phosphatase, 6.3.4 Diacylglycerol acyltransferase, 6.3.5 Enzymes catalyzing acyl-CoA-independent synthesis of, triacylglycerol, 6.3.6 CDP-choline:-1,2-diacylglycerol cholinephosphotransferase, 6.3.7 Lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase, 6.3.8 Phospholipases, 6.3.9 Soluble lysophosphatidic acid phosphatase and monoacylglycerol acyltransferase in developing peanut, 6.4 Complex metabolic processes can affect the fatty acid composition, of triacylglycerol, 6.5 Structure, composition and biogenesis of lipid bodies, 6.6 Mobilization of storage lipids, 6.6.1 Degradation of triacylglycerols into fatty acids, 6.6.2 β-Oxidation of fatty acids and conversion of lipid to carbohydrate, 6.6.3 β-Oxidation during seed maturation, 6.7 Storage lipids in developing pollen grains, 6.8 Effect of environmental conditions and carbon source on triacylglycerol accumulation, 6.9 The role of lipid–protein particles and plasma membrane vesicles in membrane turnover, 6.10 Biosynthesis of liquid wax esters, 6.11 Do plants transport storage lipids?, 6.12 Conclusions and future directions, 7 Lipid-associated proteins, 7.1 Introduction, 7.2 Plant lipid-associated proteins, 7.2.1 Oleosins, 7.2.2 Oleo-pollenins (‘oleosin-like proteins’), 7.2.3 Caleosins, 7.2.4 Plastid lipid-associated proteins, 7.2.5 Minor lipid-associated proteins in plants, 7.2.6 Lipid-associated proteins in non-storage tissues in plants, 7.2.6.1 Phloem, 7.2.6.2 Roots and meristems, 7.2.6.3 Rubber, 7.3 Comparisons with non-plant systems, 7.3.1 Animals, 7.3.1.1 The PAT family of cytosolic lipid-body proteins, 7.3.1.2 Caveolins – the unexpected lipid-associated proteins, 7.3.1.3 Extracellular lipid-body proteins, 7.3.2 Microorganisms, 7.3.2.1 Fungi, 7.3.2.2 Prokaryotes, 7.3.2.3 Viruses, 7.4 Conclusions, 8 The plant cuticle: formation and structure of epidermal surfaces, 8.1 Introduction, 8.2 Biosynthesis of cuticle components, 8.2.1 De novo fatty acid synthesis, 8.2.2 Cutin biosynthesis, 8.2.3 Synthesis of very-long-chain fatty acid wax precursors, 8.2.4 Synthesis of aliphatic cuticular wax components, 8.2.4.1 The acyl reduction pathway, 8.2.4.2 The decarbonylation pathway, 8.2.5 The β-diketone pathway, 8.3 Cuticle biosynthesis in the context of the epidermal cell, 8.3.1 Saturated long-chain fatty acids are exported from the plastid to the ER for elongation, 8.3.2 VLCFA modification and delivery of wax constituents to the plasma membrane, 8.3.3 Export of wax components from the epidermal cell to the cuticle, 8.4 Cuticle composition and structure, 8.4.1 Formation and composition of epicuticular crystals, 8.4.2 Physical and chemical distinction between epicuticular film and intracuticular wax, 8.4.3 Crystalline arrangement of epi- and intracuticular wax molecules, 8.5 Conclusions, 9 Inositol-containing lipids: roles in cellular signalling, 9.1 Introduction, 9.2 Phosphoinositides: synthesis, turnover and function, 9.2.1 Biosynthesis of phosphatidylinositol, 9.3 Phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol and other phosphoinositides, 9.3.1 Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases, 9.3.2 Phosphatidylinositol 4-kinases, 9.3.3 Phosphatidylinositol 5-kinases, 9.3.4 Phosphatidylinositol 3-monophosphate 5-kinases, 9.3.5 Phosphatidylinositol 4-monophosphate 5-kinares, 9.4 Phosphoinositide–protein interactions, 9.4.1 Profilin, 9.4.2 ADF/cofilin, 9.4.3 PARF and other FYVE-finger domain proteins, 9.4.4 Proteins containing PH-domains, 9.4.5 Proteins containing PX-domains, 9.4.6 Proteins containing ENTH-, VHS- and FERM-domains, 9.5 Conclusions, 10 Oxylipins, 10.1 Introduction: synthesis of oxylipins, 10.1.