Plant Disease Management Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture through Traditional and Modern Approaches (Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection, 13)

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1: History and Recent Trends in Plant Disease Control: An Overview
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Plant Pathology: Food Safety and Security
	1.3 Brief History of Plant Pathology
	1.4 Basic Principles of Plant Disease Management
	1.5 Biological Control
	1.6 Integrated Plant Disease Management
	1.7 Recent Advances in Plant Disease Management
	References
Chapter 2: Plant Genetics and Physiology in Disease Prognosis
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Recent Trends in Biochemical and Molecular Detection of Plant Pathogens
	2.3 Physiology of Diseased Plants
	2.4 Rhizobacteria and Host Plants
	2.5 Induced Resistance Against Pathogen Infection
	References
Chapter 3: Conventional Plant Breeding Program for Disease Resistance
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Disease Economic Impact
		3.2.1 Examples of Plant Diseases
	3.3 Pathogens Targeted by Plant Breeders
		3.3.1 Fungi
		3.3.2 Nematodes
		3.3.3 Protozoa and Algae
		3.3.4 Bacteria
		3.3.5 Actinomycetes
		3.3.6 Mycoplasmas and Spiroplasms
		3.3.7 Viruses and Viroids
	3.4 Management of Plant Diseases
	3.5 Genetics of Disease Resistance
		3.5.1 Vertical Resistance
		3.5.2 Horizontal Resistance
	3.6 Resistance Breeding Strategies
		3.6.1 Prioritize the Importance of Diseases
		3.6.2 Steps in Breeding for Disease Resistance
			3.6.2.1 Sources of Resistance Genes
			3.6.2.2 Utilization of Genetic Resource
	3.7 Planned Deployment of Resistance Genes
		3.7.1 Self-Pollinated Crops
		3.7.2 Cross-Pollinated Crops
	3.8 Evaluation
	3.9 Release to Growers
	3.10 Factors Affecting Expression of Disease Resistance
	3.11 Advantages of Breeding for Disease Resistance
	3.12 Problems in Breeding for Disease Resistance
	3.13 Breeding Challenges for Pathogen Resistance
	References
Chapter 4: Synthetic Chemicals: Major Component of Plant Disease Management
	4.1 Historical Prospective of Chemicals for Plant Disease Control
	4.2 Basic Principles of Plant Disease Management with Synthetic Chemicals
		4.2.1 Fungicides
		4.2.2 Antibiotics
		4.2.3 Nematicides
		4.2.4 Viricides
	4.3 Application of Chemicals
	4.4 Human Civilization and Fungicides
	4.5 Classification of Fungicides
		4.5.1 Mode of Action
		4.5.2 Classification Based on General Uses
	4.6 Recent Trends in Development of Synthetic Chemicals
	4.7 Broad Spectrum and New Chemistry Fungicides in Plant Disease Control
	4.8 Fungicide Market, Policies and Procedures
	4.9 Fungicide Resistance and Plant Pathogens
	References
Chapter 5: Biological Antagonism: A Safe and Sustainable Way to Manage Plant Diseases
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Biological Control
		5.2.1 Terminology
	5.3 Biological Management of Fungal Plant Pathogens
		5.3.1 Beneficial Microbes and Plant Interaction
		5.3.2 Mechanism Involved in Biological Control
	5.4 Mycoparasitism
	5.5 Antibiosis
	5.6 Production of Metabolites
	5.7 Competition
	5.8 Resistance: Induced or Systemic
	5.9 Application Methods
	5.10 Future Prospects
		5.10.1 Antagonistic Microbes Ecology
		5.10.2 Application Method
		5.10.3 New Strains and New Mechanisms
		5.10.4 Integrated Pest Management
	5.11 Research and Development
	5.12 Biological Control of Nematodes
	5.13 Biological Control of Plant Parasitic Nematodes
	5.14 Fungi as Biocontrol Agents of Nematodes
		5.14.1 Predacious Fungi
			5.14.1.1 Endoparasitic Fungi
			5.14.1.2 Trapping Fungi
		5.14.2 Parasitic Fungi
	5.15 Bacteria as Biocontrol Agents of Nematodes
		5.15.1 Obligate Parasite
		5.15.2 Rhizosphere Bacteria
		5.15.3 Bacterial Antagonists
	5.16 Nematodes as BCA of Nematodes
		5.16.1 Aphelenchida
		5.16.2 Dorylaimida
		5.16.3 Diplogasterida
		5.16.4 Mononchida
		5.16.5 Symbionts of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
	5.17 Environmental Concerns
	5.18 Future Prospects
	5.19 Major Developments in Biomanagement of Plant Viruses
	References
Chapter 6: Soil Microbes and Plant Health
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Rhizosphere and Root Exudates
	6.3 Microbial Number and Diversity
	6.4 Plant Microbe Interactions
		6.4.1 Beneficial Interactions
		6.4.2 Negative Interactions
		6.4.3 Plants as Habitat for Microbial Population
	6.5 Microbes and Plants Growth
	6.6 Soil Microbes as Biocontrol Agent
	References
Chapter 7: Conventional and Modern Technologies for the Management of Post-Harvest Diseases
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Physical Agents
		7.2.1 Low Pressure Storage
		7.2.2 Low Storage Temperature
		7.2.3 Modified Controlled Atmosphere for Storage
		7.2.4 Heat Treatments
		7.2.5 Ultraviolet Light Treatment (UV Treatment)
	7.3 Chemical Agents
		7.3.1 Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
		7.3.2 Sodium Carbonate and Bicarbonate
		7.3.3 Chitosan
	7.4 Organic Volatile Compounds and Fungicides
	7.5 Biological Agents
		7.5.1 Biocontrol
			7.5.1.1 Antagonistic Microorganism
			7.5.1.2 Source of Antagonistic Microorganism
			7.5.1.3 Development and Production of Antagonistic Microorganism
			7.5.1.4 Mechanism of Biocontrol
				7.5.1.4.1 Competition for Nutrients and Space
				7.5.1.4.2 Siderophores
				7.5.1.4.3 Parasitism
				7.5.1.4.4 Antibiosis
				7.5.1.4.5 Induced Resistance
				7.5.1.4.6 Production of Antifungal Volatile Compounds
				7.5.1.4.7 Formation of Biofilms
	7.6 Qualities of a Potent Antagonist
	7.7 Commercial Antagonists
	7.8 Natural Plant-Based Antimicrobial Substances
		7.8.1 Volatile Aromatic Components
		7.8.2 Acetaldehyde, Six Carbon (C6) Aldehydes, Benzaldehyde
		7.8.3 Acetic Acid
		7.8.4 Jasmonates
		7.8.5 Hexenal and Hexanal
		7.8.6 Glucosinolates
		7.8.7 Essential Oils
		7.8.8 Plant Extracts
		7.8.9 Propolis
	7.9 Antimicrobial Substances from Soil
		7.9.1 Fusapyrone and Deoxyfusapyrone
	7.10 Effect of Other Materials on Biocontrol
	7.11 Botanicals
	7.12 Integrated Management
	References
Chapter 8: Application of Nanotechnology for Integrated Plant Disease Management
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Nanotechnology: Helping Agriculture with Special Emphasis on Plant Protection
	8.3 Nanoparticles for Management of Plant Diseases
	8.4 Metallic Nanoparticles: Effective Tool for Plant Disease Management
	8.5 Nanofungicides: Step Towards Sustainable Control of Fungal Plant Pathogens
	References
Chapter 9: Transgenic Approaches in Plants: Strategic Control for Disease Management
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Transgenic Technology
	9.3 Transgenic Plants and Fungal Disease Management
		9.3.1 Fungal Invasion and Plant Defense Strategies
		9.3.2 Transgenic Technology: A Strategic Control for Fungal Diseases in Plants
	9.4 Transgenic Technology for Bacterial Diseases in Plants
		9.4.1 Mechanism of Plant Bacterial Interaction
		9.4.2 Engineering Plant Genomes for Bacterial Resistance
			9.4.2.1 Engineering Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR) Pathways Vs Bacterial Diseases
			9.4.2.2 Expression of Transcription Factors and Small RNAs in Transgenic Plants Vs Bacterial Diseases
			9.4.2.3 Mammalian Proteins and Bacterial Resistance in Plants
	9.5 Transgenic Plants: A Strategic Control of Viral Diseases
	References
Chapter 10: Exploiting RNA Interference Mechanism in Plants for Disease Resistance
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Mechanism of RNAi in Plant Disease Management
	10.3 RNAi-Based Gene Silencing in Diseases Control
	10.4 Strategies of Delivering RNAi Mediated Gene Silencing
		10.4.1 Agro-Infiltration
		10.4.2 Micro-Bombardment
		10.4.3 Virus Induced Gene Silencing
		10.4.4 Host-Induced Gene Silencing
		10.4.5 Spray Induced Gene Silencing
	10.5 Advantages of RNAi Application in the Field
	10.6 Challenges for RNAi-based Spray Molecules in Plant Disease Management
		10.6.1 Longevity Issues
		10.6.2 Costly Sprays
		10.6.3 Lack of Feasible Methods to Synthesis dsRNA
		10.6.4 Health and Safety Issues
		10.6.5 Selective Targets
		10.6.6 Non-target Effects
	10.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: Genome Editing Technologies for Resistance Against Phytopathogens: Principles, Applications and Future Prospects
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs): Principle and Applications
	11.3 Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs): Principle and Applications
	11.4 CRISPR/Cas9: Principle and Applications
	11.5 Future Prospects
	References
Chapter 12: Plant Health Clinics (PHC) in Pakistan: Operations and Prospects
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Rural Development and Agriculture
		12.1.2 Rural Advisory Services and Agricultural Development
		12.1.3 Core Functions of Rural Extension or Rural Advisory Services
	12.2 Approaches Being Used for Extension Work and Rural Advisory Services
	12.3 Plant Clinics: An Innovative Agricultural Extension Approach
		12.3.1 Main Features of Plant Health Clinics
		12.3.2 Reported Strengths
		12.3.3 Limitations
	12.4 PHC an Innovative Step by Extension Workers to Provide First Hand Solution to Farmers
	12.5 Accessibility and Consultancy to Farmer Problems
	References
Chapter 13: Precision Agriculture Technologies for Management of Plant Diseases
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Plant Disease Management
		13.1.2 Precision Agriculture vis-à-vis Plant Protection
	13.2 Orange Spotting Disease in Malaysia
	13.3 Objectives
	13.4 Major Drivers in Precision Plant Protection
		13.4.1 Remote Sensing
		13.4.2 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
		13.4.3 Visible/Near-Infrared (VNIR) Spectroscopy
		13.4.4 Spectral Disease Index (SDI)
		13.4.5 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
		13.4.6 Geographic Information System (GIS) and Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
	13.5 Machine Learning Techniques
		13.5.1 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
		13.5.2 Partial Least Square (PLS)
		13.5.3 Cluster Analysis
	13.6 Case Study of OS Detection
		13.6.1 Experiment Details
			13.6.1.1 Experiment Setup for Years 2015 and 2017
			13.6.1.2 Reflectance Measurement at the Leaf Scale
			13.6.1.3 SPAD Measurement
	13.7 Orange Spotting (OS) Detection
		13.7.1 Selection of Spectral Signature Using Cluster Analysis
		13.7.2 Estimating Chlorophyll Content Using PLS
		13.7.3 Selection of Red Edge Wavebands Using Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
		13.7.4 Development of Orange Spotting Disease Index (OSDI)
	13.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 14: Quarantine and Regulations
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Quarantine
	14.2 Plant Health and Phytosanitation
	14.3 Menace of Foreign Pests
	14.4 Legislation and Phytosanitary Measures
	14.5 Developing Stories on Phytosanitary Measures
	14.6 Quarantine: Food Security and Food Safety
	14.7 Modern Trends in Certification
	14.8 Quarantine Detection
	References
Chapter 15: Development and Implementation of IDM Program for Annual and Perennial Crops
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Concepts and Definitions
	15.3 Underlying Principles of IDM
	15.4 Plant Disease Management Strategies
		15.4.1 Avoidance
		15.4.2 Exclusion
		15.4.3 Eradication
		15.4.4 Protection
		15.4.5 Resistance
		15.4.6 Antagonism
	15.5 Integrated Disease Management
	15.6 Guidelines of IDM
	15.7 Factors Affecting Occurrences
		15.7.1 Biotic Factors
		15.7.2 Parasites
		15.7.3 Inoculum for Propagation
		15.7.4 Inoculation
		15.7.5 Pathogens’ Entry
		15.7.6 Establishment of Pathogens
	15.8 Plant Disease Concept
	15.9 Integrated Disease Management (IDM)
	15.10 Principles of IDM
		15.10.1 Exclusion
			15.10.1.1 Quarantine and Inspection
			15.10.1.2 Crop Certification
		15.10.2 Avoidance
			15.10.2.1 Choice of Geographical Area
			15.10.2.2 Selection of Field
			15.10.2.3 Choice of Sowing Time
			15.10.2.4 Disease Escaping Varieties
			15.10.2.5 Seed and Planting Stock
			15.10.2.6 Epidermal Coating to Avoid Pathogens
		15.10.3 Eradication
			15.10.3.1 Cultural Methods that Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum
				15.10.3.1.1 Host Eradication
				15.10.3.1.2 Rouging
				15.10.3.1.3 Crop Rotation
				15.10.3.1.4 Sanitation
				15.10.3.1.5 Polyethylene Traps and Mulches
				15.10.3.1.6 Suppressive Soil
				15.10.3.1.7 Control Through Trap Plants
				15.10.3.1.8 Control through Antagonistic Plants
			15.10.3.2 Physical Methods That Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum
				15.10.3.2.1 Soil Sterilization by Heat
				15.10.3.2.2 Mulching
				15.10.3.2.3 Hot-Water Treatment of Propagative Organs
				15.10.3.2.4 Disease Control by Refrigeration
			15.10.3.3 Chemical Methods That Eradicate or Reduce the Inoculum
				15.10.3.3.1 Soi1 Treatment with Chemicals
				15.10.3.3.2 Fumigation
				15.10.3.3.3 Disinfestations of Warehouses
				15.10.3.3.4 Control of Insect Vectors
	15.11 Resistance or Immunity: Way to Go
		15.11.1 Cross Protection
			15.11.1.1 Systemic Acquired Resistance
			15.11.1.2 Pathogenesis Related Proteins (PR Proteins)
			15.11.1.3 Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR)
			15.11.1.4 Synthetic Compounds for Resistance Activation
			15.11.1.5 Growth Conditions
			15.11.1.6 Genetic Resistance
	15.12 Biological Control Agents: Management Plus Environmental Protection
	15.13 Integrated Disease Management-Examples
	15.14 Conclusion
	References
Index