Plant Cell and Tissue Differentiation and Secondary Metabolites: Fundamentals and Applications

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
1 An Introduction to the Process of Cell, Tissue, and Organ Differentiation, and Production of Secondary Metabolites
	1 Introduction
	2 Historical Developments in Secondary Metabolites Production
	3 Plant Growth Regulators Used in Plant Tissue Culture
		3.1 Role of Plant Growth Regulators
		3.2 Plant Growth Regulators Used for Differentiation
	4 Cell and Tissue Differentiation and Production of Secondary Metabolites
	5 Organized Culture for the Production of Secondary Metabolites
		5.1 Somatic Embryogenesis and Metabolic Studies
		5.2 Shoot Culture and Secondary Metabolites
		5.3 Roots Culture and Secondary Metabolites
		5.4 Bioreactor Culture
	6 Conclusions
	References
Part I: Cell and Tissue Differentiation and Secondary Metabolites
	2 Glandular Trichomes on the Leaves of Nicotiana tabacum: Morphology, Developmental Ultrastructure, and Secondary Metabolites
		1 Introduction
		2 General Aspects of Plant Trichomes
		3 Leaf Glandular Trichomes of Nicotiana tabacum
			3.1 Types, Functions, and Distribution of N. tabacum Leaf Glandular Trichomes
			3.2 Morphology of N. tabacum Glandular Trichomes
			3.3 Development of N. tabacum Glandular Trichomes
			3.4 Ultrastructure of the Secretory Process in Tall Glandular Trichomes
			3.5 Cell Compartments Involved in the Process of Secretion
			3.6 Ultrastructure of the Secretory Process in Short Glandular Trichomes
		4 Secretion of Secondary Metabolites of Nicotiana tabacum
			4.1 Secondary Metabolites of N. tabacum
			4.2 Histochemical Characterization of Secretions of N. tabacum Tall Glandular Trichomes
			4.3 Secretion of Secondary Metabolites In Vitro
		5 Conclusions
		References
	3 The Structural Peculiarities of the Leaf Glandular Trichomes: A Review
		1 Introduction
		2 Structure and Distribution of the Glandular Trichomes
		3 Development of the Glandular Trichomes
		4 Functions of the Glandular Trichomes
		5 Chemical Content of Secretion
		6 Ultrastructure of the Glandular Trichome Producing Secondary Metabolites
			6.1 Synthesis and Accumulation of Phenolic Substances
			6.2 Synthesis and Accumulation of Monoterpenes
			6.3 Synthesis and Accumulation of Sesquiterpene Lactones
			6.4 Synthesis and Accumulation of Cannabinoids
		7 Mechanisms of Secretion
		8 Conclusions
		References
	4 Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites and Improved Size of Glandular Trichomes in Artemisia annua
		1 Introduction
		2 Trichome Structure and Function in Artemisia annua
		3 Molecular Regulation of Glandular Trichome Development in Artemisia annua
		4 Biosynthesis of Artemisinin in Glandular Trichomes
		5 Metabolites of Glandular Trichomes of Artemisia annua
		6 Correlation Between Secondary Metabolite Accumulation and Size of Glandular Trichomes
			6.1 Growth Regulators, Trichomes, and Artemisinin
			6.2 Abiotic/Biotic Stresses, Trichomes, and Artemisinin
		7 Conclusion
		References
	5 A Model for Resin Flow
		1 Introduction
		2 Duct Structure, Development, and Distribution
			2.1 Gymnosperms
			2.2 Angiosperms
		3 Synthesis and Secretion into Ducts
		4 A Hydrodynamic Model
			4.1 Model Assumptions and Governing Equations
			4.2 Flow Properties
		5 Conclusions
		References
	6 Research Progress on the Resin Canal and Raw Lacquer Synthesis of Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Stokes) F.A. Barkley
		1 Introduction
		2 Research on the Structure and the Development of the Resin Canals of T. vernicifluum
			2.1 The Distribution of the Resin Canals of T. vernicifluum
			2.2 Microscopic Structures of T. vernicifluum Phloem and Resin Canals
			2.3 Microstructure of Resin Canals in Secondary Phloem
			2.4 The Development of the Resin Canals of T. vernicifluum
		3 Comparative Studies of Bark Structure, Lacquer Yield, and Urushiol Content in Different Cultivated T. vernicifluum Varieties
			3.1 The Structural Feature of the Secondary Phloem of T. vernicifluum
			3.2 Secondary Phloem Structure Comparison Among Different Cultivated Varieties of T. vernicifluum
			3.3 The Influence of the Structure of Phloem on the Composition and Yield of Raw Lacquer
			3.4 Annual Yield of Raw Lacquer
			3.5 Discussion
		4 Ultrastructural Study of the Development of Resin Canals and Lacquer Secretion in T. vernicifluum
			4.1 Ultrastructure of Secretory Cells and the Development of Resin Canals
			4.2 Raw Lacquer Secretion from Secretory Cells in Resin Canals
			4.3 Aging and Disintegration of Secretory Cells in Resin Canals
			4.4 Ultrastructure of Sheath Cells and Phloem Elements
			4.5 Discussion
		5 Conclusions
		References
Part II: Production of Secondary Metabolites in Shoot Cultures
	7 Shoot Organogenesis, Genetic Stability, and Secondary Metabolite Production of Micropropagated Digitalis purpurea
		1 Introduction
		2 Digitalis purpurea L.
		3 Phytochemistry and Medicinal Uses
		4 In Vitro Culture of Digitalis purpurea and Secondary Metabolite Production
			4.1 Indirect Organogenesis
			4.2 Direct Organogenesis
		5 Genetic Stability
		6 Biotechnological Approaches for Biomass and Cardenolide Production
		7 Conclusions
		References
	8 Bioreactor-Grown Shoot Cultures for the Secondary Metabolite Production
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials and Methods
		3 Secondary Metabolite Production in Bioreactor-Grown Shoot Cultures
		4 Types of Bioreactors Used for In Vitro Shoot Cultures
			4.1 Mechanically Agitated Bioreactors
			4.2 Pneumatically Agitated Bioreactors
			4.3 Temporary and Continuous Immersion Systems
			4.4 Gas Phase Bioreactors
		5 Comparative Studies on Bioreactor Performance
		6 Conclusions
		References
	9 Production of Specific Flavonoids and Verbascoside in Shoot Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis
		1 Introduction
		2 Chemical Composition of the Baikal Skullcap Root
		3 Traditional Applications of the Baikal Skullcap
		4 Biological Activity of the Root Extracts and Isolated Compounds
		5 Biogenesis of the Studied Groups of Compounds and Their Characteristic
		6 Review of the Research on In Vitro Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis
			6.1 Micropropagation of Scutellaria baicalensis
			6.2 Genetic Transformation of Scutellaria baicalensis
		7 Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites in In Vitro Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis: Studies from Our Laboratory
		8 Stationary In Vitro Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis
			8.1 Cultures Grown on Murashige and Skoog Medium
			8.2 Cultures Grown on Linsmaier and Skoog Medium
		9 Agitated In Vitro Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis
			9.1 Cultures Grown in Murashige and Skoog Medium
			9.2 Cultures Grown in Linsmaier and Skoog Medium
		10 Administering of Biosynthetic Precursors of Phenolic Compounds
			10.1 Stationary Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis
			10.2 Agitated Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis
		11 Elicitation of In Vitro Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis: Agitated Cultures
		12 Combined Strategies: Simultaneous Addition of Elicitor and Biosynthetic Precursors - Agitated Cultures
		13 In Vitro Cultures of Scutellaria baicalensis in Bioreactors: Preliminary Research
		14 Conclusions
		References
	10 Secondary Metabolites in Shoot Cultures of Hypericum
		1 Introduction
		2 Pharmaceutical Value of Hypericum Species
		3 Biotechnological Approaches to Improve Secondary Metabolite Production in Shoot Cultures of Hypericum Species
			3.1 Plant Growth Regulators and Signaling Compounds
			3.2 Elicitation
				3.2.1 Biotic Elicitors
				3.2.2 Bacteria and Yeast Extracts
				3.2.3 Abiotic Elicitors
				3.2.4 Carbon Source
				3.2.5 Cryogenic Treatment
				3.2.6 Chemical Factors
				3.2.7 Nanoparticles
			3.3 Precursor Feeding
			3.4 Genetic Transformation
		4 Other Factors Affecting Secondary Metabolite Yield in Shoot Cultures of Hypericum Species
			4.1 Culture System
			4.2 Genotype and Ploidy Level
			4.3 Developmental Stage
		5 Conclusions
		References
	11 Different Types of In Vitro Cultures of Schisandra chinensis and Its Cultivar (S. chinensis cv. Sadova): A Rich Potential Source of Specific Lignans and Phenolic Compounds
		1 Introduction
			1.1 S. chinensis: Species Characteristics and Significance in Modern Phytotherapy and Cosmetology
			1.2 Schisandra lignans (Dibenzocyclooctadiene Lignans) and Phenolic Compounds
			1.3 An Overview of Former Biotechnological Research on S. chinensis In Vitro Cultures
		2 Production of Dibenzocyclooctadiene Lignans in S. chinensis Microshoot Cultures
			2.1 Optimization of Culture Type
			2.2 Optimization of Culture Lighting Conditions
			2.3 Optimization of Elicitation Processes
			2.4 Optimization of Lignan Production in Bioreactors
			2.5 Optimization of Lignan Production Based on Culture Type in Microshoot Cultures of S. chinensis cv. Sadova
		3 Production of Phenolic Compounds in S. chinensis Microshoot Cultures
			3.1 Optimization of Culture Type
			3.2 Optimization of Culture Lighting Conditions
			3.3 Optimization of the Production of Phenolic Compounds in Bioreactors
			3.4 Optimization of the Production of Phenolic Compounds in Microshoot Cultures of S. chinensis cv. Sadova
		4 Conclusions
		References
	12 High Production of Depsides and OtherPhenolic Acids in Different Types of ShootCultures of Three Aronias: Aroniamelanocarpa, Aronia arbutifolia,Aronia 
 prunifolia
		1 Introduction
		2 Phenolic Acids: Distribution in the Plant Kingdom, Biosynthetic Pathways, and Biological Activities
		3 Aronia Species: Natural Habitats, Area of Cultivation, Chemical Composition, and Biological Activities
		4 In Vitro Production of Phenolic Acids: Examples
		5 Production of Phenolic Acids in Different Types of In Vitro Cultures of Three Aronias: The Investigations from Our Laboratory
			5.1 Stationary Solid Shoot Culture of A. melanocarpa: Testing the Basal Media and PGRs
				5.1.1 Linsmaier and Skoog Medium Variants
				5.1.2 Murashige and Skoog Medium Variants
			5.2 Stationary Solid Shoot Culture of Aronia arbutifolia: Testing PGRs
				5.2.1 Murashige and Skoog Medium Variants
			5.3 Stationary Solid Shoot Culture of Aronia x prunifolia: Testing PGRs
				5.3.1 Murashige and Skoog Medium Variants
			5.4 Stationary Shoot Cultures of Aronia melanocarpa, Aronia arbutifolia, and Aronia x prunifolia: Testing the Light Conditions
			5.5 Agitated Shoot Culture of Aronia melanocarpa: Testing of Basal Media and PGRs
				5.5.1 Linsmaier and Skoog Medium Variants
				5.5.2 Murashige and Skoog Medium Variants
			5.6 Agitated Shoot Culture of Aronia arbutifolia: Testing of PGRs
				5.6.1 Murashige and Skoog Medium Variants
			5.7 Agitated Shoot Culture of Aronia x prunifolia: Testing of PGRs
				5.7.1 Murashige and Skoog Medium Variants
			5.8 Agitated Shoot Culture of A. melanocarpa: Testing the Feeding of Culture Media with Precursors of Phenolic Acids
			5.9 Agitated Shoot Culture of A. arbutifolia: Testing the Feeding of Culture Media with Precursors of Phenolic Acids
			5.10 Agitated Shoot Culture of A. x prunifolia: Testing the Feeding of Culture Media with Precursors of Phenolic Acids
			5.11 Agitated Shoot Culture of A. x prunifolia: Research on the Dynamics of Accumulation of Phenolic Acids During Growth Cycles
			5.12 Shoot Culture of A. x prunifolia in Bioreactors: Preliminary Results on the Dynamics of Accumulation of Phenolic Acids
		6 Conclusions and Prospects
		References
	13 Neuroprotective Xanthones and Their Biosynthesis in Shoot Cultures of Hoppea fastigiata (Griseb.) C.B. Clarke
		1 Introduction
		2 Xanthones - Chemistry and Uses
		3 Biotechnological Intervention in Hoppea fastigiata
			3.1 Isolation and Identification of Xanthones from Ethanolic Extracts of In Vitro Shoots
			3.2 Upliftment of Xanthones in Elicited Shoot Cultures of H. fastigiata
			3.3 Elicited H. fastigiata Shoot Cultures Showed Enhanced Acetylcholinesterase, Monoamine Oxidase A and B Inhibitions
		4 Inhibitor Treatments of H. fastigiata Shoot Cultures
			4.1 Effect of Inhibitors on Elicited Shoot Cultures
		5 Effect of Elicitation on Enzyme Activities of H. fastigiata Shoot Cultures
			5.1 Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase (PAL) Activity from Shoots Cultures of H. fastigiata
			5.2 4-Coumarate CoA Ligase (4CL) Activity Remained Stable After Yeast Extract Treatment
			5.3 Enhancement of Shikimate Dehydrogenase (SKDH) Activity in H. fastigiata Shoots
			5.4 Enhancement of Shikimate Kinase (SK) Activity in H. fastigiata Shoots
		6 Mechanism of Elicitation in Yeast Extract Mediated Xanthone Enhancement in Hoppea fastigiata
		7 Conclusions
		References
	14 Bioreactor Technology for In Vitro Berry Plant Cultivation
		1 Introduction
		2 Phytochemical Profiles and Bioactivity of Berry Plants
			2.1 Fragaria vesca L.
			2.2 Rubus idaeus L.
			2.3 Vaccinium myrtillus L.
			2.4 Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.
		3 Applications of Molecular DNA Markers in Wild Berries
		4 In Vitro Cultures of Berry Plants
			4.1 Micropropagation Techniques for Berry Plants
			4.2 Explants and Nutrients (Including Growth Regulators) Used in Micropropagation of Berry Plants
		5 Bioreactor Design and Operation Modes for in Vitro Propagation of Berry Plants
		6 Conclusions
		References
	15 Secondary Metabolites of Various Eleuthero (Eleutherococcus senticosus/Rupr. et Maxim./Maxim) Organs Derived from Plants Obtained by Somatic Embryogenesis
		1 Introduction
		2 Plant Development
			2.1 Generative and Vegetative Reproduction Problems
			2.2 Production of Plantlets with Application of In Vitro Techniques
				2.2.1 Zygotic Embryos
				2.2.2 Somatic Embryos
				2.2.3 Adaptation of Plantlets to Ex Vitro Conditions
		3 Eleuthero Raw Materials and Their Chemical Profile
			3.1 Chemical Diversity of Raw Materials
			3.2 Secretory Structures of Eleuthero Organs
		4 Conclusions
		References
Part III: Production of Secondary Metabolites in Normal and Hairy Root Cultures
	16 Biotechnological Production of Useful Phytochemicals from Adventitious Root Cultures
		1 Introduction
		2 Establishment of Adventitious Root Cultures: Techniques for Phytochemical Accumulation
			2.1 Induction of Adventitious Roots and Selection of Clones
			2.2 Optimization of Culture Parameters
			2.3 Elicitation
		3 Cultivation of Adventitious Roots in Bioreactors
		4 Successful Examples of In Vitro Production of Phytochemicals by Adventitious Root Cultures
			4.1 Ginsenosides
			4.2 Caffeic Acid Derivatives
			4.3 Hypericin
		5 Conclusions
		References
	17 Mass Scale Hairy Root Cultivation of Catharanthus roseus in Bioreactor for Indole Alkaloid Production
		1 Introduction
		2 Bioreactor Configurations
		3 Inoculation
		4 Mechanical Agitation
		5 Root Morphology
		6 Gas Regime
			6.1 Oxygen
			6.2 Carbon Dioxide
		7 Growth Measurement in Bioreactors
		8 Two-Phase Cultures
		9 Strategies to Improve Productivity
			9.1 Effect of Elicitors
			9.2 Precursor Feeding
			9.3 Release and Recovery of Alkaloids
			9.4 Use of Mathematical Models in Process Optimization
		10 Conclusion
		References
	18 Bioproduction of Anticancer Podophyllotoxin and Related Aryltretralin-Lignans in Hairy Root Cultures of Linum flavum L.
		1 Introduction: General Presentation of the Lignans, a Group of Plant Specialized Metabolites
		2 Podophyllotoxin Is a Bioactive Lignans with Potent Anticancer Properties
		3 The Podophyllotoxin Supply Issue
		4 An Overview of the ATL Biosynthesis
			4.1 The Origins of Lignans
			4.2 The Key Role of the DIR for the Enantioselective Formation of Pinoresinol
			4.3 PLR Enzymes: Steps from Pinoresinol to Secoisolariciresinol
			4.4 The Formation of Matairesinol by SDH
			4.5 Hypotheses on the Biosynthetic Steps from Matairesinol to Podophyllotoxin
			4.6 Regulatory Aspects of the Lignan Biosynthesis
		5 Linum flavum Hairy Roots, a Good Way to Produce ATL
			5.1 L. flavum Is a Rich Source of ATL
			5.2 L. flavum HR Obtention
			5.3 Culture Medium optimization for the Production of ATL in L. flavum HR
			5.4 Influence of the Carbon Source and Concentration on the Production of ATL in L. flavum HR
			5.5 Influence of Phytohormones and Elicitors on the Production of ATL in L. flavum HR
			5.6 Precursors Feeding for the Production of ATL in L. flavum HR
			5.7 Permeation Experiments for the Excretion of ATL in L. flavum HR Culture Medium
			5.8 Scale-up Studies for the Production of ATL in L. flavum HR in Bioreactors
		6 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	19 Development of Taxus spp. Hairy Root Cultures for Enhanced Taxane Production
		1 Introduction
		2 Taxonomy and Importance of Taxus Genus
		3 Taxane Biosynthesis Pathway
		4 Establishment of Taxus spp. Hairy Root Cultures
		5 Biotechnological Methods for Enhancing Taxane Production
		6 Conclusions
		References
	20 Biosynthesis of Biological Active Abietane Diterpenoids in Transformed Root Cultures of Salvia Species
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Characteristic of the Salvia Genus
			1.2 Diterpenoids
				1.2.1 Diterpenoid Biosynthesis
				1.2.2 Diterpenoids in the Genus Salvia
		2 In Vitro Transformed Root Culture
		3 Bioactive Diterpenoids in Transformed Root Cultures of Salvia sclarea
		4 Bioactive Diterpenoids in Transformed Root Cultures of Salvia austriaca
		5 Transformed Roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza and S. castanea as a Source of Biologically Active Tanshinones
		6 Conclusions
		References
	21 Bonediol Production in Bonellia macrocarpa Hairy Root Culture
		1 Introduction
		2 Plant Secondary Metabolism
			2.1 Importance of Plants in Mayan Traditional Medicine
			2.2 Secondary Metabolites of Medicinal Plants
			2.3 Biological Activities of Genus Bonellia
			2.4 Bonellia macrocarpa
		3 Bonediol
		4 Biosynthesis of Secondary Metabolites in Plants
		5 Hairy Roots Culture as Biotechnological Tool for Plant Secondary Metabolites
			5.1 Plant Tissue Culture for Secondary Metabolism
			5.2 Agrobacterium rhizogenes-Mediated Transformation
			5.3 Factors that Influence the Hairy Roots Development
			5.4 Agrobacterium and the Hairy Root Transformation
		6 Secondary Metabolites Production in Hairy Roots
		7 Bonellia macrocarpa as a Producer of Bonediol via Hairy Root Culture
		8 Conclusions
		References
	22 Withanolide Production in Hairy Root Culture of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal: A Review
		1 Introduction
		2 Withanolide Biosynthetic Pathway
		3 Biomass Accumulation and Withanolide Production in Hairy Root Culture
		4 Elicitation Strategies in Hairy Root Culture
		5 Macro Elements, Nitrogen Resources, pH, and Carbon Sources on Biomass Accumulation and Withanolide Production
		6 Overexpression of Genes Involved in Hairy Root Culture
		7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	23 Enhanced Secondary Metabolite Production in Hairy Root Cultures Through Biotic and Abiotic Elicitors
		1 Introduction
		2 Different Kinds of Elicitors: An Insight
			2.1 The Abiotic Elicitors
				2.1.1 Physical Elicitors
					Light Stress Variation
					Osmotic Stress
					Salinity Stress
					Temperature Variation
					Nanoparticles
				2.1.2 Chemical Elicitors
			2.2 Biotic Elicitors
		3 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Other In Vitro Production Systems for Secondary Metabolites
	24 Morphogenesis, Genetic Stability, and Secondary Metabolite Production in Untransformed and Transformed Cultures
		1 Introduction
		2 Effect of Tissue Organization/Cellular Differentiation on SM Production
			2.1 SM Production in Unorganized Undifferentiated Callus and Cell Suspension Cultures
			2.2 SM Production in Untransformed Root Cultures
			2.3 SM Production in Untransformed Shoot Cultures and Micropropagated Plants
			2.4 SM Production in In Vitro Transformed Cultures
				2.4.1 Stable Production of SMs in Undifferentiated Transformed Cultures
				2.4.2 Transformed Hairy Root Cultures
				2.4.3 Relationship Between Differentiation and SMs: Crown Galls and Shooty/Rooty Teratomas
				2.4.4 Transgenic Plants from Ri-Transformed Root Organ Cultures
		3 Effect of Tissue Organization/Cellular Differentiation on Genetic and Biochemical Stability
			3.1  Undifferentiated Cultures
			3.2 Micropropagated Plants and Organ Cultures
			3.3  Hairy Root Cultures
		4 Conclusions
		References
	25 Secondary Metabolism in Tissue and Organ Cultures of Plants from the Tribe Cichorieae
		1 Introduction
		2 Main Classes of Specialized (Secondary) Metabolites in the Cichorieae
			2.1 Polyphenols and Simple Phenolics
			2.2 Terpenoids
			2.3 Miscellaneous
		3 Production of Secondary Metabolites by Undifferentiated Cultures of the Cichorieae
		4 Specialized Metabolites of Organogenic Cultures
		5 Production of Specialized Metabolites in Organs and Plants Cultivated In Vitro
			5.1 In Vitro Regenerated Shoots and Plantlets
			5.2 Axenic Roots and Rhizobium rhizogenes-Transformed Roots
		6 Conclusions
		References
	26 Plant Liquid Cultures as a Source of Bioactive Metabolites
		1 Introduction
		2 Characteristics of Liquid Systems
			2.1 The Advantages of Liquid Cultures
			2.2 The Disadvantages of Liquid Cultures
			2.3 Materials for Improving Conditions in Liquid Cultures
		3 Biomass Accumulation and Production of Bioactive Phytochemicals for Medicinal Plants Cultivated in Liquid Media
			3.1 Alkaloids
				3.1.1 Camptotheca acuminata Decne. (Nyssaceae)
				3.1.2 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Apocynaceae)
				3.1.3 Narcissus confusus Pugsley (Amaryllidaceae)
				3.1.4 Nothapodytes nimmoniana Graham (Icacinaceae)
				3.1.5 Pancratium maritimum L. (Amaryllidaceae)
				3.1.6 Securinega suffruticosa (Pall.) Rehder (Phyllanthaceae)
			3.2 Polyphenolic Acids
				3.2.1 Hypericum perforatum L. (Hypericaceae)
				3.2.2 Salvia officinalis L. (Lamiaceae)
			3.3 Xanthone
				3.3.1 Cyclopia genistoides (L.) Vent. (Fabaceae)
			3.4 Benzophenone
				3.4.1 Cyclopia genistoides (L.) Vent. (Fabaceae)
			3.5 Flavonoids
				3.5.1 Cyclopia genistoides (L.) Vent. (Fabaceae)
				3.5.2 Scutellaria sp. (Lamiaceae)
			3.6 Lignans
				3.6.1 Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. (Schizandraceae)
			3.7 Naphthodianthrone
				3.7.1 Hypericum sp. (Hypericaceae)
			3.8 Phloroglucinol Derivatives
				3.8.1 Hypericum sp. (Hypericaceae)
			3.9 Iridoids
				3.9.1 Valeriana glechomifolia Meyer (Valerianaceae)
			3.10 Secoiridoids
				3.10.1 Centaurium erythraea Rafn. (Gentianaceae)
			3.11 Diterpenoids
				3.11.1 Salvia officinalis L. (Lamiaceae)
			3.12 Steroids
				3.12.1 Withania sp. (Solanaceae)
			3.13 Saponins
				3.13.1 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell. (Plantaginaceae)
				3.13.2 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Apiaceae)
				3.13.3 Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R.Fern. (Asparagaceae)
			3.14 Furanocoumarins
				3.14.1 Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae)
			3.15 Cardenolides
				3.15.1 Digitalis purpurea L. (Plantaginaceae)
				3.15.2 Isoplexis canariensis (L.) Lindl. ex G. Don (Plantaginaceae)
		4 Conclusion
		References
	27 Propagation of Southern Sweet-Grass Using In Vitro Techniques as a Method for the Production of Plants Being a Source of Standardized Raw Material
		1 Introduction
		2 Natural Sites of Southern Sweet-Grass
		3 Biology of Development
			3.1 Intraspecific Variability
			3.2 Adaptation Strategies
			3.3 Conservation Threats
		4 Reproduction
			4.1 Conventional Methods
			4.2 In Vitro Propagation
				4.2.1 Callus Induction and Formation of Embryogenic Callus
				4.2.2 Plant Regeneration
				4.2.3 Multiplication of Shoots
				4.2.4 Shoot Rooting
				4.2.5 Ex Vitro Adaptation
		5 Raw Material
		6 Influence of Light on Plant Development in Cultivation Conditions
		7 Conclusions
		References
	28 Approaches for Modeling and Optimization of the Secondary Metabolite Production by Plant Biotechnology Methods
		1 Introduction
		2 Plant Secondary Metabolites
		3 Production of Secondary Metabolites by Plant Biotechnology Methods
		4 Modeling Approaches and Optimization
			4.1 Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
				4.1.1 Theory
					Screening of Influencing Factors and Their Levels
					Codification of Factors Levels
					Mathematical Modeling
					Global Predicted Capacity, Analysis, and Diagnostic of the Model
					Graphic Representation of RSM Model and Optimization
					Main Experimental Design of the RSM
					Limits of the RSM and Adjustment of a Polynomial Model of m Order (m > 2)
				4.1.2 Applications
			4.2 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
				4.2.1 Theory
					Artificial Neuron Model
					Activation Functions
					ANN Architecture
					The ANN Learning
				4.2.2 Applications
			4.3 Kriging
				4.3.1 Theory
					The Semi-variogram
					Ordinary Kriging
				4.3.2 Applications
			4.4 Combined Modeling Approaches
		5 Conclusion
		References
	29 Relationship of Phenolic Metabolism to Growth in Plant and Cell Cultures Under Stress
		1 Introduction
		2 Biosynthetic Pathways of Phenolic Compounds
			2.1 The Shikimate Pathway
			2.2 Phenylpropanoid and Flavonoid Biosynthesis
		3 Plant Responses to Abiotic and Biotic Stresses
		4 Relationship of Phenolic Metabolism to Growth
		5 Signal Transduction in Tissue and Cell Cultures under Nutritional Stress
		6 Conclusions
		References
	30 In Vitro Systems of Selected Eryngium Species (E. planum, E. campestre, E. maritimum, and E. alpinum) for Studying Production of Desired Secondary Metabolites (Phenolic Acids, Flavonoids, Triterpenoid Saponins, and Essential Oil)
		1 Introduction
		2 Secondary Metabolites in Eryngium Species from Natural Sites
			2.1 Triterpenoid Saponins
			2.2 Polyphenols
				2.2.1 Phenolic Acids
				2.2.2 Flavonoids
			2.3 Essential Oil
			2.4 Other Bioactive Compounds
				2.4.1 Coumarins
				2.4.2 Polyacetylenes
				2.4.3 Phytosterols
				2.4.4 Ecdysteroids
				2.4.5 Betaines
				2.4.6 Macro- and Microelements
		3 Application of Selected Eryngium Species in Traditional Medicine
		4 In Vitro Systems as an Alternative Source of Plant Biomass
			4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Medicinal Plant Micropropagation
				4.1.1 Micropropagation of E. planum, E. campestre, E. maritimum, and E. alpinum, Four Species Native to Poland
			4.2 Differentiated Cultures
				4.2.1 Shoot Culture of Eryngium planum
			4.3 Undifferentiated Cultures
				4.3.1 Callus and Cell Suspension Cultures of Eryngium planum
			4.4 Biotechnological Approach for Enhancement of Secondary Metabolites in In Vitro Systems of Eryngium Species
				4.4.1 General Characteristics of Applied Biotechnological Methods
				4.4.2 Media Composition
				4.4.3 The Influence of Media Composition on Secondary Metabolites in Micropropagated Plants of Eryngium Species
					Production of Phenolic Acids
					Production of Flavonoids
					Production of Triterpenoid Saponins
					Production of Essential Oils
					Elicitation with Methyl Jasmonate and Yeast Extract
				4.4.4 The Influence of Selected Biotechnological Approaches on Secondary Metabolite Accumulation in Shoot Culture of Eryngium planum
					Production of Phenolic Acids
					Production of Triterpenoid Saponins
				4.4.5 The Influence of Selected Biotechnological Approaches on Secondary Metabolite Accumulation in Callus and Cell Suspension Cultures of Eryngium planum
					Production of Phenolic Acids
					Production of Triterpenoid Saponins
		5 Biological Activity of Extracts and Fractions from Eryngium Species
			5.1 Antioxidant Activity
			5.2 Antimicrobial Activity
			5.3 Antiamoebic Activity
			5.4 Antiproliferative and Proapoptotic Activity
			5.5 Neuroprotective Activity
			5.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		6 Conclusion and Prospects
		References
	31 Biosynthesis and Biotechnological Production of Anticancer Drug Camptothecin in Genus Ophiorrhiza
		1 Introduction
		2 Biosynthetic Pathway of CPT
			2.1 Formation of Geranyl Diphosphate (GDP)
			2.2 Enzymes Involved in the Early Stage for the Synthesis of MIA Pathway
			2.3 Formation of Secologanin
			2.4 Biosynthesis of Tryptamine
			2.5 Biosynthesis of Strictosidine
			2.6 Strictosidine to CPT Biosynthesis
		3 Metabolic Engineering of CPT Biosynthesis in Ophiorrhiza
		4 Biotechnological Production of CPT from Ophiorrhiza
		5 Conclusion and Prospects
		References
	32 Production of Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Compounds in In Vitro Cultures of Club Mosses
		1 Introduction
		2 Lycopodiaceae sensu lato as the Oldest Vascular Plants: A Short Survey of Systematics and Phylogeny
		3 Medicinal Uses of Club Mosses in the Past
		4 Phytochemical Studies of the Lycopodiaceae sensu lato Family
			4.1 Alkaloids
				4.1.1 Lycopodine Class (Fig. 3)
				4.1.2 Lycodine Class (Fig. 4)
				4.1.3 Fawcettimine Class (Fig. 5)
				4.1.4 Miscellaneous Group (Fig. 6)
		5 The Use of In Vitro Cultures for the Biosynthesis of Alkaloids with Cholinesterase Inhibitory Activity
		6 Conclusions
		References
Index