Planetary Surface Processes (Cambridge Planetary Science)

Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 16
Acknowledgments......Page 20
1 The grand tour......Page 22
1.1 Structure of the Solar System......Page 23
1.1.1 Major facts of the Solar System......Page 24
1.1.2 Varieties of objects in the Solar System......Page 25
1.2 Classification of the planets......Page 26
1.2.1 Retention of planetary atmospheres......Page 27
1.2.2 Geologic processes on the terrestrial planets and moons......Page 28
1.3 Planetary surfaces and history......Page 30
1.3.1 The Moon......Page 31
1.3.2 Mercury......Page 35
1.3.3 Venus......Page 36
1.3.4 Mars......Page 37
1.3.5 Jupiter’s Galilean satellites......Page 39
1.3.6 Titan......Page 41
1.3.7 The Earth......Page 43
Further reading......Page 45
2 The shapes of planets and moons......Page 46
2.1.1 Non-rotating planets: spheres......Page 47
2.1.2 Rotating planets: oblate spheroids......Page 48
2.1.3 Tidally deformed bodies: triaxial ellipsoids......Page 51
2.1.5 Center of mass to center of figure offsets......Page 55
2.1.6 Tumbling moons and planets......Page 56
2.2.1 How high is high?......Page 57
2.2.2 Elevation statistics: hypsometric curves Box 2.1 Ttopographic roughness......Page 59
2.2.3 Where are we? Latitude and longitude on the planets......Page 62
2.3 Spectral representation of topography......Page 65
Exercises......Page 68
3.1 Topography and stress......Page 70
3.2.1 Strain......Page 73
3.2.2 Stress......Page 74
3.2.3 Stress and strain combined: Hooke’s law......Page 76
3.2.4 Stress, strain, and time: viscosity......Page 78
3.3.1 Elastic deformation and topographic support......Page 79
3.3.2 Elastic stress solutions and a limit theorem......Page 81
3.3.3 A model of planetary topography......Page 83
3.4.2 Long-term strength Box 3.2 Tthe ultimate strength of solids......Page 85
3.4.3 Creep: strength cannot endure......Page 95
3.4.4 Planetary strength profiles......Page 101
3.5.2 Viscous relaxation of topography......Page 103
3.5.3 The topographic advantages of density differences: isostatic support......Page 108
3.5.4 Dynamic topography......Page 111
3.5.5 Floating elastic shells: flexural support of topographic loads......Page 112
Further reading......Page 121
3.6 Clues to topographic support Box 3.3 Fflexure of a floating elastic layer......Page 114
3.6.1 Flexural profiles......Page 117
3.6.2 Anomalies in the acceleration of gravity......Page 118
3.6.3 Geoid anomalies Box 3.4 Tthe ambiguous lithosphere......Page 120
3.1 Strength vs. gravity......Page 122
3.5 Global isostasy......Page 123
3.7 Flexed Venusian lithosphere......Page 124
4.1 What is tectonic deformation?......Page 125
4.1.1 Rheologic structure of planets......Page 126
4.1.2 One- and multiple-plate planets......Page 128
4.2.1 External sources of tectonic stress......Page 129
4.2.2 Internal sources of tectonic stress......Page 130
4.3.1 Accretional heat......Page 134
4.3.2 Tidal dissipation in planetary interiors......Page 135
4.3.3 Heat transfer by thermal conduction and radiogenic heat production......Page 137
4.3.4 Thermal convection and planetary heat transfer......Page 142
4.4 Rates of tectonic deformation......Page 148
4.5.1 Compression: folding of rocks Box 4.1 Eelastic and viscous buckling theory......Page 149
4.5.2 Folding vs. faulting: fault-bend folds......Page 154
4.5.3 Extension: boudinage or necking instability......Page 156
4.5.4 Gravitational instability: diapirs and intrusions......Page 157
4.6.1 Why faults? Localization......Page 160
4.6.2 Joints, joint networks, and lineaments......Page 162
4.6.3 Faults: Anderson’s theory of faulting Box 4.2 Dip angle of Aanderson faults......Page 164
4.7.1 Planetary grid systems......Page 175
4.7.2 Flexural domes and basins......Page 176
4.7.3 Stress interactions: refraction of grabens by loads......Page 178
4.7.4 Io’s sinking lithosphere......Page 179
4.7.5 Terrestrial plate tectonics......Page 181
Further reading......Page 182
4.1 Hot and cold asteroids......Page 183
4.4 Hot, flexed lithospheres......Page 184
4.6 Radiant Earth......Page 185
4.7 Planetary warps......Page 186
4.9 Io’s crunched crust......Page 188
4.10 Venusian ridge belts......Page 189
5.1 Melting and magmatism......Page 190
5.1.1 Why is planetary volcanism so common? Box 5.1 Tthe adiabatic gradient......Page 191
5.1.2 Melting real planets Box 5.1 Tthe adiabatic gradient......Page 196
5.1.3 Physical properties of magma......Page 204
5.1.4 Segregation and ascent of magma Box 5.2 Tthe standpipe model of magma ascent......Page 208
5.2.1 Central versus fissure eruptions......Page 215
5.2.2 Physics of quiescent versus explosive eruptions Box 5.3 Aa speed limit for volcanic ejecta......Page 216
5.2.3 Volcanic surface features......Page 225
5.3.1 Lava flow morphology......Page 229
5.3.2 The mechanics of lava flows......Page 231
5.3.3 Lava domes, channels, and plateaus......Page 235
5.1 Squeezing magma sponges......Page 239
5.4 Volcanic bombs in orbit: a natural answer to StarWars......Page 240
5.6 Big volcanoes on little planets......Page 241
6.1 History of impact crater studies......Page 243
6.2 Impact crater morphology......Page 244
6.2.2 Complex craters......Page 245
6.2.3 Multiring basins......Page 247
6.2.4 Aberrant crater types......Page 249
6.3 Cratering mechanics......Page 250
6.3.1 Contact and compression......Page 251
6.3.2 Excavation......Page 254
6.3.3 Modification Box 6.1 Maxwell’s Z model of crater excavation......Page 259
6.4 Ejecta deposits......Page 265
6.4.1 Ballistic sedimentation......Page 267
6.4.2 Fluidized ejecta blankets......Page 269
6.4.3 Secondary craters......Page 271
6.5 Scaling of crater dimensions......Page 272
6.5.1 Crater diameter scaling......Page 273
6.5.2 Impact melt mass......Page 274
6.6 Atmospheric interactions......Page 275
6.7 Cratered landscapes......Page 276
6.7.1 Description of crater populations......Page 277
6.7.2 Evolution of crater populations......Page 282
6.8 Dating planetary surfaces with impact craters......Page 283
6.8.1 b > 2 population evolution......Page 284
6.8.2 b < 2 population evolution......Page 286
6.8.3 Leading/trailing asymmetry......Page 287
6.9.1 Planetary accretion......Page 288
6.9.2 Impact catastrophism......Page 289
6.9.4 Late Heavy Bombardment......Page 290
6.9.5 Impact-induced volcanism?......Page 291
Further reading......Page 292
6.2 Crater collapse......Page 293
6.3 Swedish rock rain......Page 294
6.5 Titan gets its kicks!......Page 295
7.1 Lunar and asteroid regoliths: soil on airless bodies......Page 297
7.1.1 Impact comminution and gardening Box 7.1 Growth of the lunar regolith......Page 300
7.1.2 Regolith maturity......Page 306
7.1.3 Radiation effects on airless bodies......Page 307
7.2 Temperatures beneath planetary surfaces......Page 309
7.2.1 Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles......Page 310
7.2.2 Heat transfer in regoliths......Page 311
7.3 Weathering: processes at the surface/atmosphere interface......Page 314
7.3.1 Chemical weathering......Page 316
7.3.2 Physical weathering......Page 321
7.3.3 Sublimation weathering......Page 327
7.3.4 Duricrusts and cavernous weathering......Page 329
7.3.5 Desert varnish......Page 330
7.3.6 Terrestrial soils......Page 331
7.4.1 “Fairy castle” lunar surface structure......Page 332
7.4.2 Stone pavements: why the Brazil nuts are on top......Page 334
7.4.3 Mudcracks, desiccation features......Page 336
7.1 Gardening asteroids......Page 337
7.4 Harold Urey’s feedback on planetary habitation......Page 338
7.7 Sublime cometary surfaces......Page 339
8.1 Soil creep......Page 340
8.1.1 Mechanism of soil creep......Page 341
8.1.2 Landforms of creeping terrain......Page 344
8.2 Landslides......Page 347
8.2.1 Loose debris: cohesion c = 0......Page 348
8.2.2 Cohesive materials c > 0 Box 8.1 Ccrater terraces as slump blocks......Page 352
8.2.3 Gravity currents......Page 360
8.2.4 Long-runout landslides or sturzstroms......Page 361
Further reading......Page 365
8.2 Diffusing topography......Page 366
8.4 Following a French cliff-hanger......Page 367
8.6 Groovey Lutetia......Page 368
9 Wind......Page 369
9.1.1 Terminal velocity......Page 370
9.1.2 Suspension of small particles......Page 373
9.2 Motion of sand-sized grains......Page 374
9.2.1 Initiation of motion......Page 375
9.2.2 Transport by the wind......Page 382
9.2.3 The entrainment of dust......Page 384
9.3.1 The instability of sandy surfaces......Page 386
9.3.2 Ripples, ridges, and sand shadows Box 9.1 Kamikaze grains on Mars......Page 387
9.3.3 Dunes......Page 392
9.3.4 Yardangs and deflation......Page 397
9.3.5 Wind streaks......Page 398
9.3.6 Transient phenomena......Page 399
Further reading......Page 400
9.5 The marching dunes......Page 401
10 Water......Page 403
10.1.1 Time, flow, and chance......Page 404
10.1.2 Rainfall: infiltration and runoff......Page 407
10.2.1 The water table: the piezometric surface......Page 409
10.2.2 Percolation flow......Page 411
10.2.3 Springs and sapping Box 10.1 How long can streams flow after the rain stops?......Page 413
10.3 Water on the surface......Page 416
10.3.1 Overland flow......Page 417
10.3.2 Streamflow......Page 422
10.3.3 Channels Box 10.2 Aanalysis of stream networks......Page 428
10.3.4 Standing water: oceans, lakes, playas......Page 439
10.3.5 Fluvial landscapes......Page 449
Further reading......Page 452
10.3 Swing wide, lazy river......Page 453
10.5 Low-gravity surfing......Page 454
11.1 Ice on planetary surfaces......Page 455
11.1.1 Ice within the hydrologic cycle......Page 456
11.1.2 Glacier classification......Page 457
11.1.3 Rock glaciers......Page 459
11.2 Flow of glaciers......Page 460
11.2.1 Glen’s law......Page 461
11.2.2 The plastic-flow approximation......Page 463
11.2.3 Other ices, other rheologies......Page 464
11.2.4 Basal sliding Box 11.1 Salt glaciers and solution creep......Page 465
11.3 Glacier morphology......Page 467
11.3.1 Flow velocities in glaciers and ice sheets......Page 468
11.3.2 Longitudinal flow regime and crevasses......Page 469
11.3.3 Ice-sheet elevation profile......Page 470
11.4.1 Glacial erosion......Page 472
11.4.2 Glacial deposition......Page 473
11.5 Ice in the ground......Page 475
11.5.1 Permafrost......Page 476
11.5.2 Patterned ground......Page 480
Further reading......Page 483
11.2 The inner heat......Page 484
11.5 Permafrosty Mars......Page 485
References......Page 486
Index......Page 506
Plates......Page 522