PISA 2018 RESULTS (VOLUME II) WHERE ALL STUDENTS CAN SUCCEED.

Preface
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
Executive Summary
	Where all students can succeed: Main findings
		Equity related to socio-economic status
		Equity related to gender
		Equity related to immigrant background
			Table II.1 Snapshot of socio-economic disparities in academic performance
			Table II.2 Snapshot of expectations for the future, by gender and socio-economic status
			Table II.3 Snapshot of immigrant students
			Table II.4 Snapshot of enrolment and resources allocated to schools
			Table II.5 Snapshot of gender gaps in performance
	Equity in education
Reader’s Guide
	Data underlying the figures
	Coverage
	International averages
	Rounding figures
	Reporting student data
	Reporting school data
	Focusing on statistically significant differences
	Abbreviations used in this report
	Further documentation
	Reference
What is PISA?
	What is unique about PISA?
		Map of PISA countries and economies
	Which countries and economies participate in PISA?
	What does the test measure?
		Box A Key features of PISA 2018
	How is the assessment conducted?
	Who are the PISA students?
	Where can you find the results?
Chapter 1. How PISA examines equity in education: Inclusion and fairness
	Shaping a sustainable future and a better world
	How PISA examines equity in education
	Education outcomes
		School enrolment rates
		Student performance
		Students’ attitudes and beliefs
		Students’ expectations for their future
	Mediating student background and education outcomes
	Examining equity in this report
		Figure II.1.1 A conceptual framework for examining equity in education in PISA 2018
	References
Chapter 2. Students’ socio-economic status and performance
	What the data tell us
	Variation in students’ socio-economic status and in their performance
		Figure II.2.1 Heterogeneity in socio-economic status within countries
		Box II.2.1.Definition of socio-economic status in PISA
		Figure II.2.2 Mean performance in reading, by international decile of socio-economic status
		Box II.2.2.Inclusive education: Attaining minimum proficiency, regardless of students’ socio-economic status
	Socio-economic disparities in PISA performance
		The strength and slope of the socio-economic gradient
			Box II.2.3.Definition of disadvantaged and advantaged students in PISA
		Changes in socio-economic inequities in performance
			Figure II.2.3 Mean performance in reading, by national quarter of socio-economic status
			Table II.2.1 Change between 2009 and 2018 in reading performance related to socio-economic status
		Top performers and socio-economic status
			Figure II.2.4 Differences in top performance related to socio-economic status and percentage of top performers
	Performance and fairness in education
		Figure II.2.5 Strength of the socio-economic gradient and reading performance
	Notes
	References
Chapter 3. Academic resilience and well-being amongst disadvantaged students
	What the data tell us
	How PISA defines academic resilience
	Academic resilience across countries
		Figure II.3.1 Academic resilience
	Factors related to academic resilience
		Support from parents and teachers
		School climate
			Figure II.3.2 Parents’ support and student resilience
		Beliefs in one’s own abilities
			Figure II.3.3 Disciplinary climate at school and student resilience
			Figure II.3.4 Proportion of students exhibiting a growth mindset
			Figure II.3.5 Growth mindset and student resilience
	How academic resilience is related to students’ attitudes and dispositions
		Figure II.3.6 Resilience and students’ attitudes and dispositions
	Academic resilience and students’ well-being
		Students’ well-being and socio-economic status
			Figure II.3.7 Students’ well-being, by socio-economic status
		Do academically resilient students enjoy greater well-being?
			Figure II.3.8 Students’ well-being, by academic resilience
	Notes
	References
Chapter 4. Social diversity and equity in learning outcomes
	What the data tell us
	Academic stratification of schools
		Between- and within-school variation in performance
			Figure II.4.1 Variation in reading performance between and within schools
		Isolation indices of high and low achievers
			Box II.4.1.The isolation index: An illustration
				Figure II.4.2 Complete vs no segregation cases (illustrative example 1)
				Figure II.4.3 Complete vs no segregation cases (illustrative example 2)
			Figure II.4.4 Isolation index of low- and high-achieving students in reading
	Social segregation across schools
		Between- and within-school variations
		Isolation indices of disadvantaged and advantaged students
			Figure II.4.5 Isolation index of advantaged and disadvantaged students
		Index of isolation of disadvantaged students from high achievers
			Figure II.4.6 Isolation of disadvantaged students from high-achieving students in reading
	How school choice and private schooling are related to social segregation
		Box II.4.2.Public schools, and government-dependent and independent privately managed schools
		The aims and effects of school choice
		The no social diversity index
			Figure II.4.7 Public and private schools, and social segregation across schools
			Figure II.4.8 School selectivity, by school type
	Social segregation and equity in education
		Figure II.4.9 Equity in reading performance and no social diversity index
		Figure II.4.10 Reading performance and no social diversity index
	Notes
	References
Chapter 5. How do schools compensate for socio-economic disadvantage?
	What the data tell us
	Characteristics of disadvantaged schools
		Table II.5.1 Teacher quality and quantity, by schools’ socio-economic profile
	Teachers’ characteristics and schools’ socio-economic profile
		Figure II.5.1 Percentage of teachers with at least a masters’ degree, by schools’ socio-economic profile
		Figure II.5.2 Under-representation of qualified teachers in disadvantaged schools and difference in reading performance
	Sorting experienced teachers across schools
		Figure II.5.3 Percentage of novice teachers, by schools’ socio-economic profile
		Figure II.5.4 Over-representation of novice teachers in disadvantaged schools and difference in reading performance
	Teacher absenteeism
	Educational resources and staff shortages
		Figure II.5.5 Difference in shortage of educational material and staff, by schools’ socio-economic profile
	Notes
	References
Chapter 6. How school systems prepare students for their future
	What the data tell us
	Students’ career expectations
		Table II.6.1 Top 10 career expectations of 15-year-old students, by gender
		Figure II.6.1 Students who expect to work in one of the ten most-cited occupations
		Figure II.6.2 Students whose education and career expectations are not aligned, by socio-economic status
		Box II.6.1. How to improve disadvantaged students’ understanding of the costs of – and returns to – tertiary education
	Education and career expectations amongst disadvantaged students
		Performance and expectations
			Figure II.6.3 Proportion of high-skilled employees in the labour force and students with realistic and ambitious expectations
			Figure II.6.4 Students who expect to complete tertiary education
			Figure II.6.5 High performers who do not expect to complete tertiary education, by socio-economic status
	Career guidance at school
		Figure II.6.6 Advantaged/disadvantaged schools where one or more dedicated counsellor(s) provide career guidance
	How teenagers learn about prospective careers
		Figure II.6.7 How students get information about the labour market
		Figure II.6.8 Students who reported knowing how to find information about student financing, by socio-economic status
		Box II.6.2.How needs-based interventions may narrow the socio-economic gap in tertiary enrolment
	Notes
	References
Chapter 7. Girls’ and boys’ performance in PISA
	What the data tell us
	The gender gap in PISA performance
		Figure II.7.1 Gender gap in reading performance
		Figure II.7.2 Mean score and gender gap in reading performance
		Box II.7.1.Gender gap in reading subscales
		Figure II.7.3 Gender gap in reading and mathematics performance
		Trends in the gender gap
			Table II.7.1 Change between 2009 and 2018 in the gender gap in favour of girls in reading performance
	Variation in performance amongst boys and girls
		Figure II.7.4 Distribution of proficiency in reading and mathematics, by gender
	The gender gap and socio-economic status
		Figure II.7.5 Reading performance, by gender and socio-economic status
		Figure II.7.6 Proportion of low achievers in reading, by gender and socio-economic status
		Figure II.7.7 Proportion of top performers in reading, by gender and socio-economic status
		Figure II.7.8 Proportion of top performers in mathematics, by gender and socio-economic status
	Notes
	References
Chapter 8. Do boys and girls differ in their attitudes towards school and learning?
	What the data tell us
	Reading, gaming and chatting: How boys and girls spend their leisure time in the age of social media
		Reading for enjoyment
		Use of digital devices
			Figure II.8.1 Gender gap in enjoyment of reading
		Doing homework
			Figure II.8.2 Gender gap in reading and ICT hobbies
	Boys, girls and motivation to achieve
		Competition and motivation to master tasks
		Perceived competence and difficulty in reading
			Figure II.8.3 Gender gap in attitudes towards competition
			Figure II.8.4 Gender gap in motivation to master tasks
			Figure II.8.5 Gender gap in reading performance and perceived competence in reading
		Fear of failure
			Figure II.8.6 Gender gap in fear of failure
		Prepared for tomorrow? Boys’ and girls’ expectations about their future career
			Figure II.8.7 Expectation to work in science-related occupations
			Box II.8.1.How to narrow, if not close, the gender gap in STEM
			Figure II.8.8 Gender gap in career expectations amongst top performers in mathematics and/or science
	Notes
	References
Chapter 9. Performance and academic resilience amongst students with an immigrant background
	What the data tell us
	Box II.9.1.Who is an immigrant student?
	Box II.9.2.Immigration policies and the composition of the immigrant student population
	A profile of immigrant students
		Figure II.9.1 Change between 2009 and 2018 in the percentage of students with an immigrant background
		Figure II.9.2 Change in proportion of immigrant students and change in reading proficiency
		Figure II.9.3 Percentage of disadvantaged students, by immigrant background
		Figure II.9.4 Percentage of immigrant students who do not speak the language of instruction at home
	Immigrant background and performance in reading
		Average reading performance amongst immigrant students
			Figure II.9.5 Average performance in reading, by immigrant background
		Immigrant students’ expectations of completing a tertiary degree
			Figure II.9.6 Difference in reading performance, by immigrant background
			Figure II.9.7 Students’ expectations of completing tertiary education
	Segregation of immigrant students in education systems
		Figure II.9.8 Segregation of immigrant students across countries
	Academic resilience amongst immigrant students
		Figure II.9.9 Percentage of academically resilient immigrant students
		Contextual factors associated with academic resilience
			Figure II.9.10 Percentage of academically resilient immigrant students, by quarter of key indicators
		Student’s attitudes and dispositions associated with academic resilience
			Figure II.9.11 Students’ attitudes and dispositions
	Well-being of immigrant students
		Figure II.9.12 Students’ well-being and immigrant status
	Note
	References
Chapter 10. Immigrant students’ attitudes and dispositions
	What the data tell us
	The attitudes of students with an immigrant background
		Students’ perception of their own competence and of reading difficulties
			Figure II.10.1 Perception of competence in reading
			Figure II.10.2 Index of learning goals
		Goal orientation and work mastery
	Factors related to positive student attitudes
		Figure II.10.3 Immigrant students’ attitudes and parents’ support
		Parents’ emotional support
			Figure II.10.4 Parents’ support and immigrant students’ learning goals
		Teacher support
			Figure II.10.5 Immigrant students’ attitudes and teacher support
			Figure II.10.6 Teacher support and immigrant students’ learning goals
		Language spoken at home
			Figure II.10.7 Language spoken at home and perceptions of competence and difficulty in reading
		School climate
			Figure II.10.8 Immigrant students’ attitudes, disciplinary climate at school, and perception of co-operation between students
	References
Annex A. PISA 2018 technical background
	Annex A1. The construction of proficiency scales and of indices from the student context questionnaire
		Explanation of the indices
		Student-level simple indices
		Student-level scale indices
		School-level simple indices
		Parent-level scale indices
		Teacher-level simple indices
		Teacher-level scale indices
		Notes
		References
	Annex A2. The PISA target population, the PISA samples and the definition of schools
		Who is the PISA target population?
		How were students chosen?
		What proportion of 15-year-olds does PISA represent?
		Definition of schools
		The distribution of PISA students across grades
			Table I.A2.1 PISA target populations and samples
			Table I.A2.2 Change in the enrolment of 15-year-olds in grade 7 and above (PISA 2003 through PISA 2018)
			Table I.A2.4	Exclusions
			Table I.A2.6	Response rates
			Table I.A2.8	Percentage of students at each grade level
		Notes
		References
	Annex A3. Technical notes on analyses in this volume
		Standard errors, confidence intervals and significance tests
		Odds ratios
		Overall ratios and average ratios
		Social and academic segregation indices
		Index of socio-economic inequality in the probability of being a high performer
		Use of student, school and teacher weights
		References
	Annex A4. Quality assurance
		Reference
Annex B. PISA 2018 Data
	Annex B1. Results for countries and economies
		Table II.B1.2.1 Students’ socio-economic status
		Table II.B1.3.1 Reading performance by socio-economic students and proportion of academically resilient students
		Table II.B1.3.4 Students’ well-being, by socio-economic status
		Table II.B1.4.3 School admissions policies, by school type
		Table II.B1.5.5 Novice teachers, by school characteristics
		Table II.B1.5.7 Teacher absenteeism, by school characteristics
		Table II.B1.6.1 Career expectations, by socio-economics status and school programme orientation
		Table II.B1.6.5 Factors that influence students’ career and education expectations, by socio-economic status
		Table II.B1.7.3 Mathematics performance, by gender (2018)
		Table II.B1.7.5 Science performance, by gender (2018)
		Table II.B1.8.22 Expectation to work as science and engineering professionals amongst top performers in science or mathematics, by gender
		Table II.B1.8.23 Expectation to work as health professionals amongst top performers in science or mathematics, by gender
		Table II.B1.9.3 Mean reading performance and academic resilience, by immigrant background
		Table II.B1.9.9 Change between 2009 and 2018 in the percentage of students with an immigrant background
		Table II.B1.9.10 Change between 2009 and 2018 in the reading performance of students with an immigrant background
		Table II.B1.10.1 Average student attitudes and dispositions, by immigrant background
		Table II.B1.10.2 Students’ attitudes and dispositions, and immigrant background
		Annex B1 List of tables available on line
	Annex B2. Results for regions within countries
		Table II.B2.1 Students’ socio-economic status
		Table II.B2.4 Socio-economic status and reading performance
		Table II.B2.9 Total variation in reading performance, and variation between and within schools
		Table II.B2.18 Variation in Principals’ views on staff shortage, by school characteristics
		Table II.B2.19 Variation in Principals’ views on material shortage, by school characteristics
		Annex B2 Students’ socio-economic status and performance
	Annex B3. PISA 2018 system-level indicators
Annex C. Modal grade by country/economy
	Table II.C.1 Modal grade by country/economy
Annex D. The development and implementation of PISA: A collaborative effort
	PISA Governing Board
	PISA 2018 National Project Managers
	OECD Secretariat
	PISA 2018 reading expert group
	PISA 2018 Global Competence Expert Group
	PISA 2018 Questionnaire Expert Group
	PISA 2018 Lead Contractors
	PISA 2018 Contributors, working with Lead Contractors