Physics. Vol. 2

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 9
Dedication......Page 10
BRIEF CONTENTS......Page 11
CONTENTS......Page 12
THE PHYSICS OF......Page 16
PREFACE......Page 19
SUPPLEMENTS......Page 28
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 29
1.1 The Nature of Physics......Page 31
1.2 Units......Page 32
THE CONVERSION OF UNITS......Page 33
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS......Page 35
1.4 Trigonometry......Page 36
1.5 Scalars and Vectors......Page 39
ADDITION......Page 40
SUBTRACTION......Page 41
VECTOR COMPONENTS......Page 42
RESOLVING A VECTOR INTO ITS COMPONENTS......Page 43
1.8 Addition of Vectors by Means of Components......Page 45
1.9 Concepts & Calculations......Page 48
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 49
2.1 Displacement......Page 58
AVERAGE SPEED......Page 59
AVERAGE VELOCITY......Page 60
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY......Page 61
2.3 Acceleration......Page 62
2.4 Equations of Kinematics for Constant Acceleration......Page 65
2.5 Applications of the Equations of Kinematics......Page 69
2.6 Freely Falling Bodies......Page 73
2.7 Graphical Analysis of Velocity and Acceleration......Page 78
2.8 Concepts & Calculations......Page 79
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 81
3.1 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration......Page 89
3.2 Equations of Kinematics in Two Dimensions......Page 90
3.3 Projectile Motion......Page 95
3.4 *Relative Velocity......Page 104
3.5 Concepts & Calculations......Page 108
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 109
4.1 The Concepts of Force and Mass......Page 117
INERTIA AND MASS......Page 118
AN INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAME......Page 119
4.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion......Page 120
4.4 The Vector Nature of Newton’s Second Law of Motion......Page 122
4.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion......Page 123
4.6 Types of Forces: An Overview......Page 125
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION......Page 126
WEIGHT......Page 127
RELATION BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT......Page 128
THE DEFINITION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE NORMAL FORCE......Page 129
APPARENT WEIGHT......Page 131
4.9 Static and Kinetic Frictional Forces......Page 133
4.11 Equilibrium Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion......Page 140
4.12 Nonequilibrium Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion......Page 145
4.13 Concepts & Calculations......Page 152
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 153
5.1 Uniform Circular Motion......Page 165
5.2 Centripetal Acceleration......Page 166
5.3 Centripetal Force......Page 169
5.4 Banked Curves......Page 173
5.5 Satellites in Circular Orbits......Page 174
5.6 Apparent Weightlessness and Artificial Gravity......Page 177
5.7 *Vertical Circular Motion......Page 181
5.8 Concepts & Calculations......Page 182
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 184
6.1 Work Done by a Constant Force......Page 190
6.2 The Work–Energy Theorem and Kinetic Energy......Page 193
WORK DONE BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY......Page 199
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY......Page 200
6.4 Conservative Versus Nonconservative Forces......Page 201
6.5 The Conservation of Mechanical Energy......Page 203
6.6 Nonconservative Forces and the Work–Energy Theorem......Page 207
6.7 Power......Page 209
6.8 Other Forms of Energy and the Conservation of Energy......Page 211
6.9 Work Done by a Variable Force......Page 212
6.10 Concepts & Calculations......Page 213
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 216
7.1 The Impulse–Momentum Theorem......Page 225
7.2 The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum......Page 229
7.3 Collisions in One Dimension......Page 234
7.4 Collisions in Two Dimensions......Page 239
7.5 Center of Mass......Page 241
7.6 Concepts & Calculations......Page 243
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 244
8.1 Rotational Motion and Angular Displacement......Page 252
ANGULAR VELOCITY......Page 255
ANGULAR ACCELERATION......Page 256
8.3 The Equations of Rotational Kinematics......Page 257
8.4 Angular Variables and Tangential Variables......Page 259
8.5 Centripetal Acceleration and Tangential Acceleration......Page 261
8.6 Rolling Motion......Page 264
8.8 Concepts & Calculations......Page 266
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 268
9.1 The Action of Forces and Torques on Rigid Objects......Page 276
9.2 Rigid Objects in Equilibrium......Page 278
9.3 Center of Gravity......Page 283
9.4 Newton’s Second Law for Rotational Motion About a Fixed Axis......Page 288
9.5 Rotational Work and Energy......Page 297
9.6 Angular Momentum......Page 300
9.7 Concepts & Calculations......Page 302
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 304
10.1 The Ideal Spring and Simple Harmonic Motion......Page 315
10.2 Simple Harmonic Motion and the Reference Circle......Page 318
DISPLACEMENT......Page 319
VELOCITY......Page 320
\nFREQUENCY OF VIBRATION......Page 321
10.3 Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion......Page 324
10.4 The Pendulum......Page 327
10.5 Damped Harmonic Motion......Page 330
10.6 Driven Harmonic Motion and Resonance......Page 331
STRETCHING, COMPRESSION, AND YOUNG’S MODULUS......Page 332
SHEAR DEFORMATION AND THE SHEAR MODULUS......Page 335
VOLUME DEFORMATION AND THE BULK MODULUS......Page 336
10.8 Stress, Strain, and Hooke’s Law......Page 337
10.9 Concepts & Calculations......Page 338
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 340
11.1 Mass Density......Page 350
11.2 Pressure......Page 351
11.3 Pressure and Depth in a Static Fluid......Page 353
11.4 Pressure Gauges......Page 356
11.5 Pascal’s Principle......Page 357
11.6 Archimedes’ Principle......Page 360
11.7 Fluids in Motion......Page 364
11.8 The Equation of Continuity......Page 365
11.9 Bernoulli’s Equation......Page 368
11.10 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation......Page 369
11.11 *Viscous Flow......Page 374
11.12 Concepts & Calculations......Page 376
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 378
12.1 Common Temperature Scales......Page 387
12.3 Thermometers......Page 389
NORMAL SOLIDS......Page 391
THERMAL STRESS......Page 393
THE BIMETALLIC STRIP......Page 394
THE EXPANSION OF HOLES......Page 395
12.5 Volume Thermal Expansion......Page 397
SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS......Page 399
CALORIMETRY......Page 402
12.8 Heat and Phase Change: Latent Heat......Page 403
12.9 *Equilibrium Between Phases of Matter......Page 407
12.10 *Humidity......Page 410
12.11 Concepts & Calculations......Page 411
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 413
13.1 Convection......Page 422
13.2 Conduction......Page 425
13.3 Radiation......Page 431
13.4 Applications......Page 435
13.5 Concepts & Calculations......Page 436
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 438
14.1 Molecular Mass, The Mole, and Avogadro’s Number......Page 444
14.2 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 446
THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS......Page 452
KINETIC THEORY......Page 453
THE INTERNAL ENERGY OF A MONATOMIC IDEAL GAS......Page 456
14.4 *Diffusion......Page 457
14.5 Concepts & Calculations......Page 460
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 462
15.1 Thermodynamic Systems and Their Surroundings......Page 468
15.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 469
15.4 Thermal Processes......Page 471
ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION OR COMPRESSION......Page 474
ADIABATIC EXPANSION OR COMPRESSION......Page 475
15.6 Specific Heat Capacities......Page 477
15.7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 478
15.8 Heat Engines......Page 479
15.9 Carnot’s Principle and the Carnot Engine......Page 480
15.10 Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps......Page 483
15.11 Entropy......Page 487
15.12 The Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 490
15.13 Concepts & Calculations......Page 491
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 493
16.1 The Nature of Waves......Page 503
16.2 Periodic Waves......Page 504
16.3 The Speed of a Wave on a String......Page 506
16.4 *The Mathematical Description of a Wave......Page 508
THE FREQUENCY OF A SOUND WAVE......Page 509
THE PRESSURE AMPLITUDE OF A SOUND WAVE......Page 510
GASES......Page 511
16.7 Sound Intensity......Page 514
16.8 Decibels......Page 517
MOVING SOURCE......Page 519
MOVING OBSERVER......Page 521
GENERAL CASE......Page 522
NEXRAD......Page 523
16.10 Applications of Sound in Medicine......Page 524
16.11 *The Sensitivity of the Human Ear......Page 525
16.12 Concepts & Calculations......Page 526
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 528
17.1 The Principle of Linear Superposition......Page 537
17.2 Constructive and Destructive Interference of Sound Waves......Page 538
17.3 Diffraction......Page 541
17.4 Beats......Page 544
17.5 Transverse Standing Waves......Page 545
17.6 Longitudinal Standing Waves......Page 550
17.7 *Complex Sound Waves......Page 553
17.8 Concepts & Calculations......Page 554
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 556
18.1 The Origin of Electricity......Page 563
18.2 Charged Objects and the Electric Force......Page 564
18.3 Conductors and Insulators......Page 566
18.4 Charging by Contact and by Induction......Page 567
THE FORCE THAT POINT CHARGES EXERT ON EACH OTHER......Page 568
THE FORCE ON A POINT CHARGE DUE TO TWO OR MORE OTHER POINT CHARGES......Page 571
DEFINITION......Page 573
POINT CHARGES......Page 576
THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR......Page 578
18.7 Electric Field Line......Page 579
18.8 The Electric Field Inside a Conductor: Shielding......Page 582
18.9 Gauss’ Law......Page 584
18.10 *Copiers and Computer Printers......Page 588
18.11 Concepts & Calculations......Page 589
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 591
19.1 Potential Energy......Page 599
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference......Page 600
19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Charges......Page 606
19.4 Equipotential Surfaces and Their Relation to the Electric Field......Page 610
THE CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR......Page 612
THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT......Page 613
THE CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR......Page 614
ENERGY STORAGE IN A CAPACITOR......Page 616
CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICAL SIGNALS IN NEURONS......Page 617
MEDICAL DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES......Page 619
19.7 Concepts & Calculations......Page 620
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 622
20.1 Electromotive Force and Current......Page 629
20.2 Ohm’s Law......Page 631
20.3 Resistance and Resistivity......Page 632
20.4 Electric Power......Page 635
20.5 Alternating Current......Page 637
20.6 Series Wiring......Page 640
20.7 Parallel Wiring......Page 643
20.8 Circuits Wired Partially in Series and Partially in Parallel......Page 647
20.9 Internal Resistance......Page 648
20.10 Kirchhoff’s Rules......Page 649
20.11 The Measurement of Current and Voltage......Page 652
20.12 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel......Page 654
20.13 RC Circuits......Page 656
20.14 Safety and the Physiological Effects of Current......Page 657
20.15 Concepts & Calculations......Page 658
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 660
21.1 Magnetic Fields......Page 672
21.2 The Force That a Magnetic Field Exerts on a Moving Charge......Page 674
COMPARING PARTICLE MOTION IN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS......Page 677
THE CIRCULAR TRAJECTORY......Page 678
21.4 The Mass Spectrometer......Page 681
21.5 The Force on a Current in a Magnetic Field......Page 682
21.6 The Torque on a Current-Carrying Coil......Page 684
A LONG, STRAIGHT WIRE......Page 686
A LOOP OF WIRE......Page 690
A SOLENOID......Page 692
21.8 Ampère’s Law......Page 695
INDUCED MAGNETISM......Page 696
MAGLEV TRAINS......Page 697
21.10 Concepts & Calculations......Page 698
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 700
22.1 Induced Emf and Induced Current......Page 710
THE EMF INDUCED IN A MOVING CONDUCTOR......Page 712
MOTIONAL EMF AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY......Page 713
MOTIONAL EMF AND MAGNETIC FLUX......Page 716
A GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR MAGNETIC FLUX......Page 717
GRAPHICAL INTERPRETATION OF MAGNETIC FLUX......Page 718
22.4 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction......Page 719
22.5 Lenz’s Law......Page 722
22.6 *Applications of Electromagnetic Induction to the Reproduction of Sound......Page 725
HOW A GENERATOR PRODUCES AN EMF......Page 726
THE BACK EMF GENERATED BY AN ELECTRIC MOTOR......Page 729
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE......Page 730
SELF-INDUCTANCE......Page 732
THE ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR......Page 734
22.9 Transformers......Page 735
22.10 Concepts & Calculations......Page 737
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 739
23.1 Capacitors and Capacitive Reactance......Page 749
23.2 Inductors and Inductive Reactance......Page 751
23.3 Circuits Containing Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance......Page 753
23.4 Resonance in Electric Circuits......Page 758
n-TYPE AND p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS......Page 762
THE SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE......Page 763
TRANSISTORS......Page 765
23.6 Concepts & Calculations......Page 767
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 769
24.1 The Nature of Electromagnetic Waves......Page 775
24.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum......Page 779
24.3 The Speed of Light......Page 781
24.4 The Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves......Page 783
24.5 The Doppler Effect and Electromagnetic Waves......Page 787
POLARIZED ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES......Page 790
MALUS’ LAW......Page 791
THE OCCURRENCE OF POLARIZED LIGHT IN NATURE......Page 794
24.7 Concepts & Calculations......Page 795
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 797
25.1 Wave Fronts and Rays......Page 804
25.2 The Reflection of Light......Page 805
25.3 The Formation of Images by a Plane Mirror......Page 806
25.4 Spherical Mirrors......Page 808
CONCAVE MIRRORS......Page 811
CONVEX MIRRORS......Page 813
CONCAVE MIRRORS......Page 814
CONVEX MIRRORS......Page 816
25.7 Concepts & Calculations......Page 819
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 821
26.1 The Index of Refraction......Page 826
SNELL’S LAW......Page 827
APPARENT DEPTH......Page 829
DERIVATION OF SNELL’S LAW......Page 830
26.3 Total Internal Reflection......Page 832
26.5 The Dispersion of Light: Prisms and Rainbows......Page 838
26.6 Lenses......Page 840
RAY DIAGRAMS AND RAY TRACING......Page 841
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVERGING LENS......Page 842
IMAGE FORMATION BY A DIVERGING LENS......Page 843
26.8 The Thin-Lens Equation and the Magnification Equation......Page 844
26.9 Lenses in Combination......Page 847
OPTICS......Page 849
NEARSIGHTEDNESS......Page 850
FARSIGHTEDNESS......Page 851
THE REFRACTIVE POWER OF A LENS—THE DIOPTER......Page 852
26.11 Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass......Page 853
26.12 The Compound Microscope......Page 855
26.13 The Telescope......Page 856
26.14 Lens Aberrations......Page 857
26.15 Concepts & Calculations......Page 859
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 861
27.1 The Principle of Linear Superposition......Page 872
27.2 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment......Page 874
27.3 Thin-Film Interference......Page 877
27.4 The Michelson Interferometer......Page 881
27.5 Diffraction......Page 882
27.6 Resolving Power......Page 886
27.7 The Diffraction Grating......Page 891
27.8 *Compact Discs, Digital Video Discs, and the Use of Interference......Page 893
27.9 X-Ray Diffraction......Page 894
27.10 Concepts & Calculations......Page 895
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 897
28.1 Events and Inertial Reference Frames......Page 905
28.2 The Postulates of Special Relativity......Page 906
TIME DILATION......Page 908
SPACE TRAVEL......Page 910
VERIFICATION OF TIME DILATION......Page 911
28.4 The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction......Page 912
28.5 Relativistic Momentum......Page 914
THE TOTAL ENERGY OF AN OBJECT......Page 915
THE RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL ENERGY AND MOMENTUM......Page 919
28.7 The Relativistic Addition of Velocities......Page 920
28.8 Concepts & Calculations......Page 923
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 925
29.1 The Wave–Particle Duality......Page 931
29.2 Blackbody Radiation and Plack\'s Constant......Page 932
29.3 Photons and the Photoelectric Effect......Page 933
29.4 The Momentum of a Photon and the Compton Effect......Page 939
29.5 The De Broglie Wavelength and the Wave Nature of Matter......Page 942
29.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle......Page 944
29.7 Concepts & Calculations......Page 947
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 949
30.1 Rutherford Scattering and the Nuclear Atom......Page 954
30.2 Line Spectra......Page 955
30.3 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 957
THE ENERGIES AND RADII OF THE BOHR ORBITS......Page 958
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS......Page 959
THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM......Page 960
30.4 De Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s Assumption about Angular Momentum......Page 961
30.5 The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 962
30.6 The Pauli Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 966
30.7 X-Rays......Page 969
30.8 The Laser......Page 973
30.9 *Medical Applications of the Laser......Page 975
30.10 *Holography......Page 977
30.11 Concepts & Calculations......Page 979
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 981
31.1 Nuclear Structure......Page 988
31.2 The Strong Nuclear Force and the Stability of the Nucleus......Page 990
31.3 The Mass Defect of the Nucleus and Nuclear Binding Energy......Page 991
31.4 Radioactivity......Page 993
α  DECAY......Page 995
β DECAY......Page 996
γ  DECAY......Page 998
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY......Page 999
31.5 The Neutrino......Page 1000
31.6 Radioactive Decay and Activity......Page 1001
31.7 Radioactive Dating......Page 1003
31.8 Radioactive Decay Series......Page 1007
31.9 Radiation Detectors......Page 1008
31.10 Concepts & Calculations......Page 1009
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 1010
32.1 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation......Page 1016
32.2 Induced Nuclear Reactions......Page 1020
32.3 Nuclear Fission......Page 1022
32.4 Nuclear Reactors......Page 1024
32.5 Nuclear Fusion......Page 1025
POSITRONS AND ANTIPARTICLES......Page 1028
CLASSIFICATION OF PARTICLES......Page 1030
QUARKS......Page 1031
THE STANDARD MODEL......Page 1032
THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE AND THE BIG BANG......Page 1033
THE STANDARD MODEL FOR THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE......Page 1034
32.8 Concepts & Calculations......Page 1035
CONCEPT SUMMARY......Page 1037
Appendix B Significant Figures......Page 1043
Appendix C Algebra......Page 1044
Appendix D Exponents and Logarithms......Page 1045
Appendix E Geometry and Trigonometry......Page 1046
Appendix F Selected Isotopes......Page 1047
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING......Page 1051
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS......Page 1058
A......Page 1069
C......Page 1070
D......Page 1071
E......Page 1072
G......Page 1073
I......Page 1074
L......Page 1075
N......Page 1076
P......Page 1077
R......Page 1078
S......Page 1079
U......Page 1081
Z......Page 1082
Frequently Used Mathematical Symbols......Page 1083
Basic Mathematical Formulas......Page 1084
The Greek Alphabet......Page 1085
Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 1086