Physics and Astrophysics: Glimpses of the Progress

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Author Bio
1. The Beginning: Physics and Astrophysics from Ancient Times to the End of the 19th Century
	1.1. Introduction
	1.2. Physics and Astrophysics Developments from Ancient Times to Galileo
		1.2.1. Introduction
		1.2.2. Motion of Bodies and Miscellaneous Ancient Thoughts
		1.2.3. The Static Earth Concept
		1.2.4. Geocentric to Heliocentric
		1.2.5. Flat Earth or Round Earth?
		1.2.6. The Nature of Space and Time
		1.2.7. Size of the Earth
	1.3. Galileo and the Beginning of Experimental Physics
	1.4. Newton’s Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation
		1.4.1. Introduction
		1.4.2. Newton’s Laws of Motion
		1.4.3. A Comment by the Author
		1.4.4. The Gravitation and the Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
		1.4.5. Weightlessness Experienced by Astronauts in Space Flights
		1.4.6. Fallout of Newtonian Gravitational Law and the Laws of Motion
		1.4.7. The Bentley Paradox
		1.4.8. Gravitation: Is It a Force or Is It Due to Space–Time Curvature?
	1.5. Faraday and Maxwell’s Electromagnetism
		1.5.1. Introduction
		1.5.2. Faraday’s Contribution
		1.5.3. J. C. Maxwell’s Contribution
		1.5.4. Fallout of Maxwell and Faraday’s Electromagnetism
	1.6. A New Dawn in the Making for the 20th Century
		1.6.1. Introduction
		1.6.2. The Aether (Ether) Prejudice till the Late 1990s
		1.6.3. The Michelson-Morley Experiment—The Concept of Space Contraction
		1.6.4. Birth of Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity
2. The Golden Period: Two Master Strokes of the 20th Century—Relativity and Quantum Mechanics
	2.1. Introduction
	2.2. Relativistic Mechanics
		2.2.1. Introduction
		2.2.2. The New Archimedes Is Born
		2.2.3. Most Beautiful of Theories
		2.2.4. Gravitation as per the General Theory of Relativity
		2.2.5. Experimental Proof in Support of General Theory of Relativity
		2.2.6. Newtonian Mechanics or Einstein’s Relativity?
		2.2.7. Comment by a Literature Laureate
	2.3. Quantum Mechanics
		2.3.1. Introduction
		2.3.2. The Formative Stage of the Quantum Concept
			2.3.2.1. Max Planck’s Contribution
			2.3.2.2. Einstein’s Contribution
		2.3.3. Journey Toward Understanding the Micro-world—The Quantum Mechanics
	2.4. Albert Einstein’s Relativity—A New Cosmic Vision
		2.4.1. Introduction
		2.4.2. Einstein’s Religious Thought
		2.4.3. Albert the Rebel
		2.4.4. Albert the Genius
		2.4.5. Similarities of the Lives of a Genius and the Great Scientists
		2.4.6. Einstein’s Relativity Theory
	2.5. Special Theory of Relativity
		2.5.1. Introduction
		2.5.2. Time Dilation and Space Contraction:.
		2.5.3. Time Dilation of Special Relativity
		2.5.4. Space Contraction of Special Relativity
		2.5.5. Twin Paradox—A Thought Experiment to Demonstrate Time Dilation and Space Contraction
		2.5.6. Simultaneity Revisited in Rela
		2.5.7. Extended Present in Space–Time Geometry
		2.5.8. Mass–Energy Relationship
		2.5.9. Experimental Proof and Application of the Mass–Energy Relation
		2.5.10. Space–Time Continuum
		2.5.11. The Space–Time Diagram for the Light Cone of Special Relativity
	2.6. General Theory of Relativity
		2.6.1. Introduction
		2.6.2. Chronogeometric Theory of Gravitation
		2.6.3. Recipes for the Development of General Theory of Relativity
		2.6.4. Prediction of Gravitational Waves
		2.6.5. The Expanding Universe from the General Theory of Relativity
		2.6.6. The Cosmological Constant—Not a Blunder but a Visionary’s True Vision
		2.6.7. Twin Paradox Due to Gravitational Dilation of Time and Correction of GPS Clocks
		2.6.8. General Theory of Relativity and Gravitational Lensing
		2.6.9. General Relativity and Wormhole/Time Machine
	2.7. The Game Changer of Atomic Physics—Quantum Mechanics
		2.7.1. Introduction
		2.7.2. Rutherford’s Atomic Model and Its Limitations
		2.7.3. Bohr’s Atomic Model—A Quantum cum Classical Approach
		2.7.4. Fallout of Bohr’s Atomic Model and Its Shortcomings
		2.7.5. The Wave–Particle Duality of de Broglie in the Quantum World
		2.7.6. Experimental Verification of Wave—Particle Duality
		2.7.7. The Double–slit Experiment with Electrons to Establish Its Dual Nature
		2.7.8. The Uncertainty Principle: An Inescapable Property of the Material World
		2.7.9. Application of the Uncertainty Principle in the LIGO Design
		2.7.10. Atomic Stability on the Basis of Quantum Mechanics
	2.8. Quantum Mechanics in the Hands of Schrödinger, Dirac, and Others
		2.8.1. Introduction
		2.8.2. Schrödinger’s Wave Mechanics
		2.8.3. Paul Dirac’s Contribution to Quantum Mechanics
		2.8.4. Quantum Mechanics and the Periodic Table of Elements
		2.8.5. Feynman and the Feynman Diagram
	2.9. Quantum Weirdness and Quantum Entanglement
		2.9.1. Quantum Mechanics—A Weird Subject
		2.9.2. Einstein’s Thought on Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Entanglement
3. Miscellaneous Developments: In the Realm of and Beyond Relativity and Quantum Mechanics
	3.1. Introduction
	3.2. Miscellaneous Developments in the Realm of Relativity Theory
		3.2.1. The Expanding Universe
			3.2.1.1. Introduction
			3.2.1.2. Work of Lemaître and Friedman on the Expanding Universe
			3.2.1.3 Experimental Support in Favor of an Expanding Universe
		3.2.2. The Big Bang theory of the Origin of the Universe
			3.2.2.1. Introduction
			3.2.2.2. Experimental Evidence Supporting the Big Bang Theory
		3.2.3. The Black Hole
			3.2.3.1. Introduction
			3.2.3.2. What Are Black Holes—A Brief Description
			3.2.3.3. Types of Black Hole
			3.2.3.4. Black Hole Identification and Experimental Evidence of Its Existence
			3.2.3.5. What Is Inside a Black Hole?
			3.2.3.6. First Experimental Imaging of Black Hole with EHT
			3.2.3.7. Black Hole versus White Hole
		3.2.4. Gravitational Waves
			3.2.4.1. Introduction
			3.2.4.2. Gravitational Wave Detection with LIGO
			3.2.4.3. A Recent Outcome from LIGO Results
			3.2.4.4. A Comment on the Fruits of Collaborative Research
	3.3. Unification Efforts Beyond the Fundamental Developments of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics
		3.3.1. Einstein’s Unified Field Theory
		3.3.2. Quantum Field Theory
		3.3.3. Quantum Gravity—Theory of Loop Quantum Gravity
		3.3.4. Evolution of the Connotation of the Term Time
		3.3.5. A Digression: Big Bang versus Big Bounce as the Theory of the Origin of the Universe
	3.4. New Thoughts beyond Relativity and Quantum Mechanics: The String Theory or the Theory of Everything
		3.4.1. Introduction
		3.4.2. Concept of String Theory
		3.4.3. History of the Development of String Theory
		3.4.4. How to Verify String Theory Experimentally
		3.4.5. Few More Words about String Theory
		3.4.6. A Comment by the Author
	3.5. A Digression: The Scientific Model of the Evolution of the Universe and Four Fundamental Forces of Nature
		3.5.1. The Scientific Model of the Evolution of the Universe
		3.5.2. How the Universe and Our Earth Might End Up and the Possible Means to Save It
		3.5.3. Fundamental Forces of Nature
	3.6. Antimatter, Dark Energy, and Dark Matter
		3.6.1. Introduction
		3.6.2. Antimatter
		3.6.3. Dark Energy and Dark Matter
	3.7. Some Comments Regarding the Present Scenario of Science and Technology Research After the Developments of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics
4. Zooming into the Subatomic World of Atomic Physics
	4.1. Introduction
	4.2. Classification of Subatomic Particles
		4.2.1. Introduction
		4.2.2. Photons
		4.2.3. Leptons
		4.2.4. Hadrons and Quarks
	4.3. The Standard Model of Physics
	4.4. Physics Beyond the Standard Model—The Possibility of a New Particle, a New Force
	4.5. Particle Accelerators/Atom Smashers
		4.5.1. Introduction
		4.5.2. The History of Particle Accelerators
		4.5.3. Principle of Operation of Particle Accelerators
		4.5.4. Some Interesting Facts About the Particle Accelerators
		4.5.5. The Future Circular Collider
5. Zooming Out to the Cosmic World of Astrophysics
	5.1. Introduction
	5.2. The Sky
		5.2.1. Introduction
		5.2.2. Why the Day Sky in the Earth Is Blue?
		5.2.3. Why the Night Sky Is Black/Dark—Olbers’ Paradox?
	5.3. The Sun and the Solar System
		5.3.1. The Birth of Sun and Its Ultimate Fate
		5.3.2. The Solar System
		5.3.3. The Moon and the Satellites of Other Planets
		5.3.4. Exoplanets
		5.3.5. Atmosphere of Different Planets in Our Solar System
		5.3.6. Global Warming and Moon’s Wobbling
	5.4. The Stars and the Stellar Evolution
		5.4.1. Introduction
		5.4.2. The Life Cycle of Stars—The Stellar Evolution
		5.4.3. The Chandrasekhar Limit
		5.4.4. Supernovae, Gamma Ray Burst and Novae
			5.4.4.1. Supernovae
			5.4.4.2. Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRB)
			5.4.4.3. Novae
		5.4.5. Classification of Stars
		5.4.6. Measurement of Distance to the Stars and Galaxies
	5.5. Nebulae and Galaxies
		5.5.1. Introduction
		5.5.2. Different Types of Galaxies
		5.5.3. The Milky Way Galaxy and Other Nearby Galaxies
		5.5.4. Far-off Galaxies: Their Possible Distance and the Speed of Recession
	5.6. Pulsars and Quasars
		5.6.1. Radio Astronomy
		5.6.2. Pulsars
		5.6.3. Fast Radio Burst
		5.6.4. Quasars
	5.7. Few Unsung Female Scientists
	5.8. The Observable Universe and Multiverse
Appendix I
	Some Important Physical Constants of Physics and Astrophysics
	Multiple and Submultiple SI Prefixes (Powers of Tens)
Appendix II
Copyright Acknowledgements
Further Readings
Subject Index
Scientist Index