Physics, the Human Adventure: From Copernicus to Einstein and Beyond

Title ......Page 2
Copyright ......Page 3
Dedication ......Page 4
Contents ......Page 6
Preface ......Page 12
PART A. The Origins of Scientific Cosmology ......Page 16
1.1 The Motions of Stars, Suns, and Planets ......Page 18
1.2 Plato\'s Problem ......Page 20
1.3 The Aristotelian System ......Page 21
1.4 How Big Is the Earth? ......Page 23
1.5 The Heliocentric Theory ......Page 25
1.6 Modified Geocentric Theories ......Page 26
1.7 The Success of the Ptolemaic System ......Page 29
2.2 The Copernican System ......Page 32
2.3 Bracing the System ......Page 37
2.4 The Opposition to Copernicus\'s Theory ......Page 38
2.5 Historic Consequences ......Page 40
3.1 The Purpose of Theories ......Page 42
3.2 The Problem of Change: Atomism ......Page 45
3.3 Theories of Vision ......Page 46
3.4 Criteria for a Good Theory in Physical Science ......Page 50
4.1 The Life of Johannes Kepler ......Page 55
4.2 Kepler\'s First Law ......Page 56
4.3 Kepler\'s Second Law ......Page 58
4.4 Kepler\'s Third Law ......Page 60
4.5 Kepler\'s Theory of Vision ......Page 61
4.6 The New Concept of Physical Law ......Page 62
5.1 The Life of Galileo ......Page 65
5.2 The Telescopic Evidences for the Copernican System ......Page 67
5.3 Toward a Physical Basis for the Heliocentric System ......Page 69
5.4 Science and Freedom ......Page 73
PART B. The Study of Motion ......Page 76
6.1 Rene Descartes ......Page 78
6.2 Constant Velocity ......Page 80
6.3 The Concept of Average Speed ......Page 82
6.4 Instantaneous Speed ......Page 83
6.5 Acceleration ......Page 85
6.6 Oresme\'s Graphical Proof of the Mean-speed Theorem ......Page 87
6.7 Equations of Motion for Constant Acceleration ......Page 88
7.1 Introduction ......Page 92
7.2 Aristotelian Physics ......Page 93
7.3 Galileo\'s Two New Sciences ......Page 95
7.4 Galileo\'s Study of Accelerated Motion ......Page 98
8.1 Projectile with Initial Horizontal Motion ......Page 103
8.2 Introduction to Vectors ......Page 106
8.3 The General Case of Projectile Motion ......Page 108
8.4 Applications of the Law of Projectile Motion ......Page 111
8.5 Galileo\'s Conclusions ......Page 112
8.6 Summary ......Page 114
PART C. Newton\'s Laws and His System of the World ......Page 116
9.1 Science in the Seventeenth Century ......Page 118
9.2 A Short Sketch of Newton\'s Life ......Page 119
9.3 Newton\'s Principia ......Page 120
9.4 Newton\'s First Law of Motion ......Page 123
9.5 Newton\'s Second Law of Motion ......Page 124
9.6 Standard of Mass ......Page 126
9.7 Weight ......Page 127
9.8 The Equal-Arm Balance ......Page 129
9.9 Inertial and Gravitational Mass ......Page 130
9.10 Examples and Applications of Newton\'s Second Law of Motion ......Page 131
9.11 Newton\'s Third Law of Motion ......Page 133
9.12 Examples and Applications of Newton\'s Third Law ......Page 134
10.1 Kinematics of Uniform Circular Motion ......Page 138
10.2 Centripetal Acceleration ......Page 140
10.3 Derivation of the Formula for Centripetal Acceleration and Force ......Page 142
10.4 The Earth\'s Centripetal Acceleration and Absolute Distances in the Solar System ......Page 143
11.1 Derivation of the Law of Universal Gravitation ......Page 146
11.2 Gravitating Planets and Kepler\'s Third Law ......Page 150
11.3 The Cavendish Experiment: The Constant of Gravitation ......Page 151
11.4 The Masses of the Earth, Sun, and Planets ......Page 153
11.5 Some Influences on Newton\'s Work ......Page 154
11.6 Some Consequences of the Law of Universal Gravitation ......Page 155
11.7 The Discovery of New Planets Using Newton\'s Theory of Gravity ......Page 159
11.8 Bode\'s Law: An Apparent Regularity in the Positions of the Planets ......Page 161
11.9 Gravity and the Galaxies ......Page 164
11.10 \"I Do Not Feign Hypotheses\" ......Page 166
11.11 Newton\'s Place in Modern Science ......Page 168
PART D. Structure and Method in Physical Science ......Page 170
12.1 Introduction: The Search for Constancies in Change ......Page 172
12.2 Science and Nonscience ......Page 173
12.3 The Lack of a Single Method ......Page 174
12.4 Physical Concepts: Measurement and Definition ......Page 176
12.5 Physically Meaningless Concepts and Statements ......Page 178
12.6 Primary and Secondary Qualities ......Page 179
12.7 Mathematical Law and Abstraction ......Page 180
12.8 Explanation ......Page 182
13.1 The Free License of Creativity ......Page 185
13.2 \"Private\" Science and \"Public\" Science ......Page 186
13.3 The Natural Selection of Physical Concepts ......Page 187
13.4 Motivation ......Page 189
13.5 Objectivity ......Page 191
13.6 Fact and Interpretation ......Page 192
13.7 How Science Grows ......Page 193
13.8 Consequences of the Model ......Page 195
14.1 Opinions on Scientific Procedure ......Page 202
14.2 A Sequence of Elements in Formulations of Laws ......Page 206
14.3 The Limitations of Physical Law ......Page 210
14.4 The Content of Science: Summary ......Page 212
PART E. The Laws of Conservation ......Page 216
15.2 Steps Toward a Formulation ......Page 218
15.3 Lavoisier\'s Experimental Proof ......Page 219
15.4 Is Mass Really Conserved? ......Page 221
16.1 Introduction ......Page 224
16.2 Definition of Momentum ......Page 225
16.3 Momentum and Newton\'s Laws of Motion ......Page 227
16.4 Examples Involving Collisions ......Page 228
16.6 Further Examples ......Page 230
16.7 Does Light Have Momentum? ......Page 231
16.8 Angular Momentum ......Page 232
17.1 Christiaan Huygens and the Kinetic Energy (Vis Viva) Concept ......Page 234
17.2 Preliminary Questions: The Pile Driver ......Page 237
17.3 The Concept of Work ......Page 238
17.4 Various Forms of Energy ......Page 239
17.5 The Conservation Law: First Form and Applications ......Page 241
17.6 Extensions of the Conservation Law ......Page 244
17.7 Historical Background of the Generalized Law of Conservation of Energy: The Nature of Heat ......Page 249
17.8 Mayer\'s Discovery of Energy Conservation ......Page 254
17.9 Joule\'s Experiments on Energy Conservation ......Page 257
17.10 Generallllustration of the Law of Conservation of Energy ......Page 260
17.11 Conservation Laws and Symmetry ......Page 262
18.1 Newton\'s Rejection of the \"Newtonian World Machine\" ......Page 266
18.2 The Problem of the Cooling of the Earth ......Page 268
18.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Dissipation of Energy ......Page 271
18.4 Entropy and the Heat Death ......Page 274
PART F. Origins of the Atomic Theory in Physics and Chemistry ......Page 278
19.1 The Nature of Gases-Early Concepts ......Page 280
19.2 Air Pressure ......Page 282
19.3 The General Gas Law ......Page 285
19.4 Two Gas Models ......Page 287
20.1 Chemical Elements and Atoms ......Page 290
20.2 Dalton\'s Model of Gases ......Page 291
20.3 Properties of Dalton\'s Chemical Atom ......Page 293
20.4 Dalton\'s Symbols for Representing Atoms ......Page 294
20.5 The Law of Definite Proportions ......Page 295
20.6 Dalton\'s Rule of Simplicity ......Page 296
20.7 The Early Achievements of Dalton\'s Theory ......Page 297
20.8 Gay-Lussac\'s Law of Combining Volumes of Reacting Gases ......Page 299
20.9 Avogadro\'s Model of Gases ......Page 300
20.10 An Evaluation of Avogadro\'s Theory ......Page 303
20.11 Chemistry After Avogadro: The Concept of Valence ......Page 304
20.12 Molecular Weights ......Page 307
21.1 The Search for Regularity in the List of Elements ......Page 311
21.2 The Early Periodic Table of Elements ......Page 312
21.3 Consequences of the Periodic Law ......Page 316
21.4 The Modern Periodic Table ......Page 318
22.1 Introduction ......Page 323
22.2 Some Qualitative Successes of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory ......Page 325
22.3 Model of a Gas and Assumptions in the Kinetic Theory ......Page 326
22.4 The Derivation of the Pressure Formula ......Page 330
22.5 Consequences and Verification of the Kinetic Theory ......Page 333
22.6 The Distribution of Molecular Velocities ......Page 337
22.7 Additional Results and Verifications of the Kinetic Theory ......Page 342
22.8 Specific Heats of Gases ......Page 344
22.9 The Problem of Irreversibility in the Kinetic Theory: Maxwell\'s Demon ......Page 348
22.10 The Recurrence Paradox ......Page 351
PART G. Light and Electromagnetism ......Page 354
23.1 Theories of Refraction and the Speed of Light ......Page 356
23.2 The Propagation of Periodic Waves ......Page 359
23.3 The Wave Theory of Young and Fresnel ......Page 362
23.4 Color ......Page 365
24.2 Electrification by Friction ......Page 367
24.4 A Modern Model for Electrification ......Page 368
24.5 Insulators and Conductors ......Page 369
24.6 The Electroscope ......Page 371
24.7 Coulomb\'s Law of Electrostatics ......Page 372
24.8 The Electrostatic Field ......Page 374
24.9 Lines of Force ......Page 376
24.10 Electric Potential Difference - Qualitative Discussion ......Page 377
24.11 Potential Difference - Quantitative Discussion ......Page 378
24.12 Uses of the Concept of Potential ......Page 379
24.13 Electrochemistry ......Page 380
24.14 Atomicity of Charge ......Page 381
25.2 Currents and Magnets ......Page 384
25.3 Electromagnetic Waves and Ether ......Page 389
25.4 Hertz\'s Experiments ......Page 392
25.5 Cathode Rays ......Page 394
25.6 X-rays and the Turn of the Century ......Page 397
25.7 The \"Discovery of the Electron\" ......Page 400
26.1 Continuous Emission Spectra ......Page 403
26.2 Planck\'s Empirical Emission Formula ......Page 406
26.3 The Quantum Hypothesis ......Page 407
26.4 The Photoelectric Effect ......Page 411
26.5 Einstein\'s Photon Theory ......Page 413
26.6 The Photon-Wave Dilemma ......Page 415
26.7 Applications of the Photon Concept ......Page 417
26.8 Quantization in Science ......Page 418
PART H. The Atom and the Universe in Modern Physics ......Page 422
27.1 Early Research on Radioactivity and Isotopes ......Page 424
27.2 Radioactive Half-Life ......Page 428
27.3 Radioactive Series ......Page 430
27.4 Rutherford\'s Nuclear Model ......Page 432
27.5 Moseley\'s X-Ray Spectra ......Page 437
27.6 Further Concepts of Nuclear Structure ......Page 439
28.1 Line Emission Spectra ......Page 442
28.2 Absorption Line Spectra ......Page 443
28.3 Balmer\'s Formula ......Page 447
28.4 Niels Bohr and the Problem of Atomic Structure ......Page 449
28.5 Energy Levels in Hydrogen Atoms ......Page 450
28.6 Further Developments ......Page 456
29.1 Recasting the Foundations of Physics Once More ......Page 461
29.2 The Wave Nature of Matter ......Page 462
29.3 Knowledge and Reality in Quantum Mechanics ......Page 466
29.4 Systems of Identical Particles ......Page 471
30.1 Biographical Sketch of Albert Einstein ......Page 477
30.2 The FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction ......Page 479
30.3 Einstein\'s Formulation (1905) ......Page 482
30.4 Galilean Transformation Equations ......Page 483
30.5 The Relativity of Simultaneity ......Page 485
30.6 The Relativistic (Lorentz) Transformation Equations ......Page 487
30.8 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy ......Page 489
30.9 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics ......Page 492
30.10 The General Theory of Relativity ......Page 495
31.1 The Nebular Hypothesis ......Page 502
31.2 Planetesimal and Tidal Theories ......Page 504
31.3 Revival of Monistic Theories After 1940 ......Page 506
31.4 Nebulae and Galaxies ......Page 509
31.5 The Expanding Universe ......Page 510
31.6 Lemaitre\'s Primeval Atom ......Page 511
32.1 Nuclear Physics in the 1930s ......Page 514
32.2 Formation of the Elements in Stars ......Page 518
32.3 Fission and the Atomic Bomb ......Page 521
32.4 Big Bang or Steady State? ......Page 524
32.5 Discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Radiation ......Page 527
32.6 Beyond the Big Bang ......Page 528
33.1 The Thematic Element in Science ......Page 532
33.2 Themata in the History of Science ......Page 535
33.3 Styles of Thought in Science and Culture ......Page 537
33.4 Epilogue ......Page 540
APPENDIX I. Abbreviations and Symbols ......Page 546
APPENDIX II. Metric System Prefixes, Greek Alphabet, Roman Numerals ......Page 550
APPENDIX III. Defined Values, Fundamental Constants and Astronomical Data ......Page 552
APPENDIX IV. Conversion Factors ......Page 554
APPENDIX V. Systems of Units ......Page 556
APPENDIX VI. Alphabetic List of the Elements ......Page 558
APPENDIX VII. Periodic Table of Elements ......Page 560
APPENDIX VIII. Summary of Some Trigonometric Relations ......Page 562
APPENDIX IX. Vector Algebra ......Page 566
General Bibliography ......Page 570
Credits ......Page 574
Index ......Page 576