Physical Properties of Lipids

cover......Page 1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS......Page 2
Dedication......Page 4
Preface......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Contributors......Page 9
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 11
Contents......Page 0
A. Nucleation in Bulk......Page 12
B. Growth in Bulk......Page 16
C. Morphology of Crystals......Page 17
E. Crystallization Under Shear......Page 18
F. Crystallization in Solution......Page 19
A. Deterministic Approach......Page 20
B. Numerical Approach......Page 21
C. Stochastic Approach......Page 25
2. Growth......Page 26
D. Probabilistic Approach......Page 30
A. Linear Crystallization in the Melting Range......Page 33
C. Empirical Expression for Crystallization......Page 34
D. Crystallization Using Isothermal Experimental Data (TTT Diagrams)......Page 35
1. Crystallization of Pure SOS......Page 39
2. Crystallization of a Binary Mixture......Page 40
3. Static Solidification of Cocoa Butter......Page 42
4. Dynamic-Static Crystallization of Cocoa Butter......Page 43
V. CONCLUSION......Page 44
REFERENCES......Page 45
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 47
A. Bulk Systems......Page 49
B. Nucleation of Fats in O/ W Emulsions......Page 50
A. Bulk Systems......Page 53
B. O/ W Emulsions......Page 54
1. n-Hexadecane......Page 55
2. Palm Oil......Page 62
3. Palm Midfraction......Page 64
4. Palm Kernel Oil......Page 65
IV. INTERFACIAL HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEATION......Page 67
REFERENCES......Page 69
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 73
II. STRUCTURAL HIERARCHY OF FAT CRYSTAL NETWORKS......Page 74
A. Triglyceride Composition and Structure......Page 76
C. Quantification of Microstructure......Page 77
A. Weak-Link Theory......Page 83
B. Modeling the Constant......Page 86
V. IMPLICATIONS FOR PROCESSING-INDUCED CHANGES IN ELASTIC PROPERTIES......Page 88
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 91
REFERENCES......Page 92
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 94
II. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION......Page 95
III. POLYMORPHISM......Page 96
IV. CRYSTALLIZATION KINETICS......Page 106
V. MICROSTRUCTURE......Page 112
VI. OTHER PROCESSING CONDITIONS......Page 126
VII. CONCLUSIONS......Page 129
REFERENCES......Page 130
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 133
II. SEPARATION OF MINOR COMPONENTS FROM MILKFAT TAGS......Page 134
A. Minor Components and Thermodynamic Properties......Page 137
B. Minor Components and Crystallization Behavior......Page 138
C. Minor Components and Nucleation......Page 145
D. Differences in Effect of DAG Addition on MF-TAGs Crystallization Behavior Between 1998 and 2000......Page 149
E. Effect of Standard DAG Isomer Addition on Crystallization Behavior of MF-TAGs......Page 151
IV. EFFECT OF MILKFAT MINOR COMPONENTS ON POLYMORPHIC BEHAVIOR......Page 155
V. EFFECT OF MINOR COMPONENTS ON MILKFAT MICROSTRUCTURE AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES......Page 157
REFERENCES......Page 167
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 170
II. THEORY......Page 171
III. APPLICATIONS......Page 183
A. Viscosity and Structure of Vegetable Oils......Page 184
B. Effects of Cholesterol on Cellular Membranes......Page 190
C. Microviscosity and Structure of Emulsions......Page 192
D. Chilling Resistance and Chilling Sensitivity of Tomato Fruit......Page 195
REFERENCES......Page 196
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 197
II. SOLID FAT CONTENT......Page 198
III. POLYMORPHISM......Page 200
IV. CRYSTAL NETWORK......Page 201
A. Fatty Acid Composition......Page 202
B. Triacylglycerol Composition......Page 203
VI. MELTING AND CRYSTALLIZATION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOLIDS......Page 206
VII. HARDSTOCK AND LIQUID OIL......Page 207
VIII. TEMPERATURE CYCLING......Page 208
IX. INTERESTERIFICATION......Page 209
X. TEXTURE......Page 210
2. Compression Between Parallel Plates......Page 211
XI. TEXTURE MEASUREMENTS OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS......Page 212
A. By Penetration......Page 217
B. By Compression......Page 218
XIII. CONCLUSION......Page 221
REFERENCES......Page 222
II. EMULSION FORMATION AND STABILITY......Page 224
B. Fat Crystals as Emulsion Destabilizers......Page 226
A. Wettability and Contact Angles......Page 227
2. Dependence of Contact Angles on Surfactants......Page 233
3. Fat Crystal Surface Heterogeneity and Contact Angle Hysteresis......Page 234
B. Interfacial Rheology......Page 237
C. Role of Morphology......Page 239
1. Interfacial Particles......Page 244
2. Role of Temperature......Page 248
3. Intraglobular Fat Crystallization......Page 250
4. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Nucleation and Growth......Page 254
5. Nucleation Kinetics......Page 255
6. Modeling Crystallization Kinetics in Emulsions......Page 256
V. THE NEED FOR FAT CRYSTALS IN FOODS......Page 257
B. Doughs and Batters......Page 258
E. Low Calorie Spreads......Page 259
VI. SOME PARTING THOUGHTS......Page 260
REFERENCES......Page 261
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 270
II. EMULSIFIERS IN FOOD MICROSTRUCTURES......Page 272
A. Adsorption at Interfaces......Page 274
1. Emulsification......Page 279
B. Surfactants in Solution......Page 281
1. Structures in Concentrated Solutions: Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Mesophases......Page 287
C. How Do We Select a Surfactant for Self-Organized Systems?......Page 295
D. Adsorption on Fats and Polymorphism – Crystal Structure Modification......Page 296
1. Cocoa Butter......Page 305
2. Hydrogenated Sun.ower Oil......Page 307
3. Nucleation in Emulsion Systems......Page 309
F. Adsorption of Fat Particles onto Oil Droplets......Page 312
G. Some Remarks on the Effect of Emulsi.ers as Crystal Structure Modifiers......Page 313
A. Lecithins and Lysolecithins......Page 314
1. Major Uses of Lecithins......Page 318
2. Lecithins from Other Sources......Page 321
B. Glycolipids......Page 322
C. Saponins......Page 323
D. Mono- and Diglycerides of Fatty Acids......Page 326
E. Monoglyceride Derivatives......Page 329
2. Succinylated Monoglycerides......Page 330
4. Citric Acid Ester of Monoglycerides......Page 331
5. Monoglyceride Lactate......Page 332
6. Monoglyceride Acetate......Page 333
F. Propylene Glycol Esters......Page 334
G. Stearoyl Lactylates......Page 335
H. Sorbitan Esters and Ethoxylated Sorbitan Esters......Page 336
I. Polyglycerol Esters......Page 339
J. Sucrose Esters......Page 341
K. Polyglycerol Polyricinoleate......Page 344
1. Native Proteins......Page 347
2. Chemically Modified Proteins......Page 352
3. Enzymatically Modified Proteins......Page 356
4. Lipid Proteins (Lipoproteins)......Page 358
5. Natural Hydrocolloids as Food Emulsi.ers......Page 359
6. Protein – Polysaccharide Interactions......Page 375
8. Biosurfactants......Page 378
IV. CONCLUSIONS......Page 382
REFERENCES......Page 384
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 392
II. STEAM DISTILLATION THEORY......Page 394
III. NON-IDEAL SOLUTION BEHAVIOR......Page 396
IV. TYPICAL DEODORIZATION CONDITIONS......Page 398
V. REMOVAL OF FREE FATTY ACIDS......Page 399
VI. REMOVAL OF OTHER COMPONENTS......Page 400
VII. EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND CONFIGURATION......Page 403
A. Batch Deodorizers......Page 406
B. Semicontinuous Deodorizers......Page 408
C. Continuous Deodorizers......Page 410
IX. PHYSICAL REFINING......Page 412
REFERENCES......Page 413
I. HISTORY OF FRACTIONATION......Page 415
A. Crystallization Theory......Page 417
1. Entrainment......Page 422
2. Oil Quality......Page 423
1. Crystallization Stage......Page 424
2. Filtration Stage......Page 425
3. Detergent Separation......Page 431
4. Centrifugal Separation......Page 433
C. Advances in Melt Fractionation......Page 435
1. Batch Fractionation Processes......Page 436
2. Continuous Fractionation Processes......Page 437
D. Solvent Fractionation......Page 439
E. Supercritical and Other Fractionation Technologies......Page 442
A. Palm Oil......Page 445
C. Milkfat......Page 447
REFERENCES......Page 449
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 452
II. HYDROGENATION PROCESS......Page 453
III. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SAMPLES......Page 454
IV. EFFECTS ON NUCLEATION......Page 462
A. Activation Free Energy of Nucleation......Page 468
A. Solid Fat Content......Page 470
C. Optical Microscopy......Page 471
1. Crystal Number, Size, and Size Distribution......Page 474
2. Crystal Morphology......Page 478
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 479
REFERENCES......Page 480
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 481
II. MECHANISMS OF CHEMICAL INTERESTERIFICATION......Page 482
1. Carbonyl Addition......Page 483
III. ENZYMATIC INTERESTERIFICATION......Page 484
A. The Catalyst......Page 485
B. Reaction Mechanisms......Page 486
1. Water Content......Page 487
2. Nonaqueous Solvents......Page 488
A. Chemical Interesteri.cation of Butterfat – Canola Oil Blends......Page 489
1. Comparing TAG and SFC Evolution......Page 490
2. Solid Fat Content......Page 493
3. Differential Scanning Calorimetric Analysis of Restructured Butterfat......Page 495
4. Solution Behavior......Page 501
5. Crystal Morphology via Polarized Light Microscopy......Page 504
6. Crystal Network Structure via Scanning Electron Microscopy and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy......Page 507
7. Polymorphic Behavior of Butterfat – Canola Oil Blends......Page 511
8. Linking Structure to Polymorphic Form......Page 512
9. Rheological Properties of the Fats......Page 513
10. The Fractal Nature of the Butterfat Crystal Network......Page 519
B. Enzymatic Interesterification of Butterfat......Page 521
1. Comparing TAG and SFC Evolution......Page 522
2. Melting and Crystallization Properties......Page 523
3. Rheology......Page 529
4. Fat Crystal Morphology......Page 532
1. Effect of Interesterification Duration......Page 535
2. Solid Fat Content......Page 538
3. TAG Solution Behavior......Page 539
4. Melting Behavior......Page 541
6. Polarized Light Microscopy......Page 547
7. Polymorphism......Page 551
8. Hardness......Page 554
9. Viscoelastic Properties......Page 555
10. Fractal Geometry......Page 556
REFERENCES......Page 557