Physical Metallurgy Principles , Fourth Edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
CONTENTS......Page 8
1.1 The Structure of Metals......Page 20
1.2 Unit Cells......Page 21
1.3 The Body-Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)......Page 22
1.5 The Face-Centered Cubic Lattice (FCC)......Page 23
1.6 The Unit Cell of the Hexagonal Closed-Packed (HCP) Lattice......Page 24
1.7 Comparison of the Face-Centered Cubic and Close-Packed Hexagonal Structures......Page 25
1.9 Anisotropy......Page 26
1.10 Textures or Preferred Orientations......Page 27
1.11 Miller Indices......Page 28
1.12 Crystal Structures of the Metallic Elements......Page 33
1.13 The Stereographic Projection......Page 34
1.14 Directions That Lie in a Plane......Page 35
1.16 The Wulff Net......Page 36
1.17 Standard Projections......Page 40
1.18 The Standard Stereographic Triangle for Cubic Crystals......Page 43
Problems......Page 45
References......Page 47
CHAPTER 2 CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES......Page 48
2.1 The Bragg Law......Page 49
2.2 Laue Techniques......Page 52
2.3 The Rotating-Crystal Method......Page 54
2.4 The Debye-Scherrer or Powder Method......Page 55
2.5 The X-Ray Diffractometer......Page 58
2.6 The Transmission Electron Microscope......Page 59
2.9 Inelastic Scattering......Page 65
2.11 The Scanning Electron Microscope......Page 67
2.12 Topographic Contrast......Page 69
2.13 The Picture Element Size......Page 72
2.14 The Depth of Focus......Page 73
2.16 Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis......Page 74
2.17 The Characteristic X-Rays......Page 75
2.18 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)......Page 77
Problems......Page 79
References......Page 80
3.2 Ionic Crystals......Page 81
3.3 The Born Theory of Ionic Crystals......Page 82
3.5 Dipoles......Page 87
3.6 Inert Cases......Page 88
3.7 Induced Dipoles......Page 89
3.8 The Lattice Energy of an Inert-Gas Solid......Page 90
3.9 The Debye Frequency......Page 91
3.10 The Zero-Point Energy......Page 92
3.13 Refinements to the Born Theory of Ionic Crystals......Page 94
3.14 Covalent and Metallic Bonding......Page 95
Problems......Page 99
References......Page 100
4.1 The Discrepancy Between the Theoretical and Observed Yield Stresses of Crystals......Page 101
4.2 Dislocations......Page 104
4.3 The Burgers Vector......Page 112
4.4 Vector Notation for Dislocations......Page 114
4.5 Dislocations in the Face-Centered Cubic Lattice......Page 115
4.6 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Stacking Faults in Face-Centered Cubic Metals......Page 120
4.8 Climb of Edge Dislocations......Page 121
4.9 Dislocation Intersections......Page 123
4.10 The Stress Field of a Screw Dislocation......Page 126
4.11 The Stress Field of an Edge Dislocation......Page 128
4.12 The Force on a Dislocation......Page 130
4.13 The Strain Energy of a Screw Dislocation......Page 133
4.14 The Strain Energy of an Edge Dislocation......Page 134
Problems......Page 135
References......Page 137
5.1 The Frank-Read Source......Page 138
5.2 Nucleation of Dislocations......Page 139
5.3 Bend Gliding......Page 142
5.4 Rotational Slip......Page 144
5.5 Slip Planes and Slip Directions......Page 146
5.7 Critical Resolved Shear Stress......Page 148
5.10 Slip Systems in Different Crystal Forms......Page 152
5.11 Cross-Slip......Page 157
5.13 Double Cross-Slip......Page 160
5.14 Extended Dislocations and Cross-Slip......Page 162
5.15 Crystal Structure Rotation During Tensile and Compressive Deformation......Page 163
5.16 The Notation for the Slip Systems in the Deformation of FCC Crystals......Page 166
5.17 Work Hardening......Page 168
5.18 Considère’s Criterion......Page 169
5.19 The Relation Between Dislocation Density and the Stress......Page 170
5.21 The Orowan Equation......Page 172
Problems......Page 173
References......Page 176
6.1 Grain Boundaries......Page 177
6.2 Dislocation Model of a Small-Angle Grain Boundary......Page 178
6.3 The Five Degrees of Freedom of a Grain Boundary......Page 180
6.4 The Stress Field of a Grain Boundary......Page 181
6.5 Grain-Boundary Energy......Page 184
6.6 Low-Energy Dislocation Structures, Leds......Page 186
6.7 Dynamic Recovery......Page 189
6.8 Surface Tension of the Grain Boundary......Page 191
6.9 Boundaries Between Crystals of Different Phases......Page 194
6.10 The Grain Size......Page 197
6.11 The Effect of Grain Boundaries on Mechanical Properties: Hall-Petch Relation......Page 199
6.12 Grain Size Effects in Nanocrystalline Materials......Page 201
6.13 Coincidence Site Boundaries......Page 204
6.15 The Ranganathan Relations......Page 205
6.16 Examples Involving Twist Boundaries......Page 206
6.17 Tilt Boundaries......Page 208
Problems......Page 211
References......Page 212
7.1 Thermal Behavior of Metals......Page 213
7.2 Internal Energy......Page 214
7.4 Spontaneous Reactions......Page 215
7.5 Gibbs Free Energy......Page 216
7.6 Statistical Mechanical Definition of Entropy......Page 218
7.7 Vacancies......Page 222
7.8 Vacancy Motion......Page 228
7.9 Interstitial Atoms and Divacancies......Page 230
Problems......Page 233
References......Page 234
8.1 Stored Energy of Cold Work......Page 235
8.2 The Relationship of Free Energy to Strain Energy......Page 236
8.3 The Release of Stored Energy......Page 237
8.4 Recovery......Page 239
8.5 Recovery In Single Crystals......Page 240
8.6 Polygonization......Page 242
8.7 Dislocation Movements in Polygonization......Page 245
8.8 Recovery Processes at High and Low Temperatures......Page 248
8.10 The Effect of Time and Temperature on Recrystallization......Page 249
8.11 Recrystallization Temperature......Page 251
8.12 The Effect of Strain on Recrystallization......Page 252
8.13 The Rate of Nucleation and the Rate of Nucleus Growth......Page 253
8.14 Formation of Nuclei......Page 254
8.16 The Recrystallized Grain Size......Page 256
8.18 Purity of the Metal......Page 258
8.20 Grain Growth......Page 259
8.21 Geometrical Coalescence......Page 262
8.22 Three-Dimensional Changes in Grain Geometry......Page 263
8.23 The Grain Growth Law......Page 264
8.24 Impurity Atoms in Solid Solution......Page 268
8.25 Impurities in the Form of Inclusions......Page 269
8.26 The Free-Surface Effects......Page 272
8.27 The Limiting Grain Size......Page 273
8.29 Secondary Recrystallization......Page 275
8.30 Strain-Induced Boundary Migration......Page 276
Problems......Page 277
References......Page 278
9.2 Intermediate Phases......Page 280
9.3 Interstitial Solid Solutions......Page 281
9.4 Solubility of Carbon in Body-Centered Cubic Iron......Page 282
9.6 Interaction of Dislocations and Solute Atoms......Page 286
9.7 Dislocation Atmospheres......Page 287
9.8 The Formation of a Dislocation Atmosphere......Page 288
9.9 The Evaluation of A......Page 289
9.10 The Drag of Atmospheres on Moving Dislocations......Page 290
9.11 The Sharp Yield Point and Lüders Bands......Page 292
9.12 The Theory of the Sharp Yield Point......Page 294
9.13 Strain Aging......Page 295
9.14 The Cottrell-Bilby Theory of Strain Aging......Page 296
9.15 Dynamic Strain Aging......Page 301
Problems......Page 304
References......Page 305
10.1 Basic Definitions......Page 306
10.3 Thermodynamics of Solutions......Page 308
10.4 Equilibrium Between Two Phases......Page 311
10.5 The Number of Phases in an Alloy System......Page 312
10.6 Two-Component Systems Containing Two Phases......Page 322
10.7 Graphical Determinations of Partial-Molal Free Energies......Page 323
10.8 Two-Component Systems with Three Phases in Equilibrium......Page 325
10.9 The Phase Rule......Page 326
10.10 Ternary Systems......Page 328
Problems......Page 329
References......Page 330
11.2 Isomorphous Alloy Systems......Page 331
11.3 The Lever Rule......Page 333
11.4 Equilibrium Heating or Cooling of an Isomorphous Alloy......Page 336
11.5 The Isomorphous Alloy System from the Point of View of Free Energy......Page 338
11.6 Maxima and Minima......Page 339
11.7 Superlattices......Page 341
11.8 Miscibility Gaps......Page 345
11.9 Eutectic Systems......Page 347
11.10 The Microstructures of Eutectic Systems......Page 348
11.11 The Peritectic Transformation......Page 353
11.12 Monotectics......Page 356
11.13 Other Three-Phase Reactions......Page 357
11.14 Intermediate Phases......Page 358
11.15 The Copper-Zinc Phase Diagram......Page 360
11.16 Ternary Phase Diagrams......Page 362
Problems......Page 365
References......Page 366
12.1 Diffusion in an Ideal Solution......Page 367
12.2 The Kirkendall Effect......Page 371
12.3 Pore Formation......Page 374
12.4 Darken’s Equations......Page 376
12.5 Fick’s Second Law......Page 379
12.6 The Matano Method......Page 382
12.7 Determination of the Intrinsic Diffusivities......Page 385
12.8 Self-Diffusion in Pure Metals......Page 387
12.9 Temperature Dependence of the Diffusion Coefficient......Page 389
12.10 Chemical Diffusion at Low-Solute Concentration......Page 391
12.11 The Study of Chemical Diffusion Using Radioactive Tracers......Page 393
12.12 Diffusion Along Grain Boundaries and Free Surfaces......Page 396
12.13 Fick’s First Law in Terms of a Mobility and an Effective Force......Page 399
12.14 Diffusion in Non-Isomorphic Alloy Systems......Page 401
Problems......Page 405
References......Page 407
13.1 Measurement of Interstitial Diffusivities......Page 408
13.2 The Snoek Effect......Page 410
13.3 Experimental Determination of the Relaxation Time......Page 417
13.5 Anelastic Measurements at Constant Strain......Page 424
Problems......Page 425
References......Page 426
14.1 The Liquid Phase......Page 427
14.2 Nucleation......Page 430
14.3 Metallic Glasses......Page 432
14.4 Crystal Growth from the Liquid Phase......Page 439
14.5 The Heats of Fusion and Vaporization......Page 440
14.6 The Nature of the Liquid-Solid Interface......Page 442
14.7 Continuous Growth......Page 444
14.8 Lateral Growth......Page 446
14.9 Stable Interface Freezing......Page 447
14.10 Dendritic Growth in Pure Metals......Page 448
14.11 Freezing in Alloys with Planar Interface......Page 451
14.12 The Scheil Equation......Page 453
14.13 Dendritic Freezing in Alloys......Page 456
14.14 Freezing of Ingots......Page 458
14.16 Segregation......Page 462
14.17 Homogenization......Page 464
14.19 Porosity......Page 469
14.20 Eutectic Freezing......Page 473
Problems......Page 478
References......Page 480
15.1 Nucleation of a Liquid from the Vapor......Page 482
15.2 The Becker-Döring Theory......Page 490
15.3 Freezing......Page 492
15.4 Solid-State Reactions......Page 494
15.5 Heterogeneous Nucleation......Page 497
15.6 Growth Kinetics......Page 500
15.7 Diffusion Controlled Growth......Page 503
15.9 Interface Controlled Growth......Page 507
15.10 Transformations That Occur on Heating......Page 511
15.11 Dissolution of a Precipitate......Page 512
Problems......Page 514
References......Page 516
CHAPTER 16 PRECIPITATION HARDENING......Page 517
16.1 The Significance of the Solvus Curve......Page 518
16.3 The Aging Treatment......Page 519
16.4 Development of Precipitates......Page 522
16.5 Aging of Al-Cu Alloys at Temperatures Above 100°C (373 K)......Page 525
16.6 Precipitation Sequences in Other Aluminum Alloys......Page 528
16.7 Homogeneous Versus Heterogeneous Nucleation of Precipitates......Page 530
16.8 Interphase Precipitation......Page 531
16.9 Theories of Hardening......Page 534
16.10 Additional Factors in Precipitation Hardening......Page 535
Problems......Page 537
References......Page 538
17.1 Deformation Twinning......Page 540
17.2 Formal Crystallographic Theory of Twinning......Page 543
17.3 Twin Boundaries......Page 549
17.4 Twin Growth......Page 550
17.5 Accommodation of the Twinning Shear......Page 552
17.6 The Significance of Twinning in Plastic Deformation......Page 553
17.7 The Effect of Twinning on Face-Centered Cubic Stress-Strain Curves......Page 554
17.8 Martensite......Page 556
17.9 The Bain Distortion......Page 557
17.10 The Martensite Transformation in an Indium-Thallium Alloy......Page 559
17.12 Athermal Transformation......Page 560
17.13 Phenomenological Crystallographic Theory of Martensite Formation......Page 561
17.14 Irrational Nature of the Habit Plane......Page 567
17.15 The Iron-Nickel Martensitic Transformation......Page 568
17.17 Stabilization......Page 570
17.18 Nucleation of Martensite Plates......Page 571
17.20 The Effect of Stress......Page 572
17.22 Thermoelastic Martensite Transformations......Page 573
17.24 Stress-Induced Martensite (SIM)......Page 575
17.25 The Shape-Memory Effect......Page 576
Problems......Page 578
References......Page 579
18.1 The Iron-Carbon Diagram......Page 581
18.2 The Proeutectoid Transformations of Austenite......Page 584
18.3 The Transformation of Austenite to Pearlite......Page 585
18.4 The Growth of Pearlite......Page 591
18.5 The Effect of Temperature on the Pearlite Transformation......Page 592
18.6 Forced-Velocity Growth of Pearlite......Page 594
18.7 The Effects of Alloying Elements on the Growth of Pearlite......Page 597
18.8 The Rate of Nucleation of Pearlite......Page 600
18.9 Time-Temperature-Transformation Curves......Page 602
18.10 The Bainite Reaction......Page 603
18.11 The Complete T-T-T Diagram of an Eutectoid Steel......Page 610
18.12 Slowly Cooled Hypoeutectoid Steels......Page 612
18.13 Slowly Cooled Hypereutectoid Steels......Page 614
18.14 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams for Noneutectoid Steels......Page 616
Problems......Page 619
References......Page 621
19.1 Continuous Cooling Transformations (CCT)......Page 622
19.2 Hardenability......Page 625
19.4 Austenitic Grain Size......Page 633
19.6 The Influence of Carbon Content on Hardenability......Page 634
19.7 The Influence of Alloying Elements on Hardenability......Page 635
19.8 The Significance of Hardenability......Page 640
19.9 The Martensite Transformation in Steel......Page 641
19.10 The Hardness of Iron-Carbon Martensite......Page 646
19.11 Dimensional Changes Associated with Transformation of Martensite......Page 650
19.12 Quench Cracks......Page 651
19.13 Tempering......Page 652
19.14 Tempering of a Low-Carbon Steel......Page 658
19.15 Spheroidized Cementite......Page 660
19.16 The Effect of Tempering on Physical Properties......Page 662
19.18 Secondary Hardening......Page 665
Problems......Page 666
References......Page 668
20.1 Commercially Pure Copper......Page 670
20.2 Copper Alloys......Page 673
20.3 Copper Beryllium......Page 677
20.5 Aluminum Alloys......Page 678
20.6 Aluminum-Lithium Alloys......Page 679
20.7 Titanium Alloys......Page 687
20.9 The Alpha Alloys......Page 689
20.10 The Beta Alloys......Page 695
20.11 The Alpha-Beta Alloys......Page 696
20.12 Superalloys......Page 698
20.13 Creep Strength......Page 699
Problems......Page 702
References......Page 703
21.1 Failure by Easy Glide......Page 705
21.2 Rupture by Necking (Multiple Glide)......Page 707
21.3 The Effect of Twinning......Page 708
21.4 Cleavage......Page 709
21.5 The Nucleation of Cleavage Cracks......Page 710
21.6 Propagation of Cleavage Cracks......Page 712
21.7 The Effect of Grain Boundaries......Page 715
21.8 The Effect of the State of Stress......Page 717
21.9 Ductile Fractures......Page 719
21.11 Blue Brittleness......Page 724
21.13 The Macroscopic Character of Fatigue Failure......Page 725
21.14 The Rotating-Beam Fatigue Test......Page 727
21.15 Alternating Stress Parameters......Page 729
21.16 The Microscopic Aspects of Fatigue Failure......Page 732
21.17 Fatigue Crack Growth......Page 736
21.18 The Effect of Nonmetallic Inclusions......Page 739
21.20 Low-Cycle Fatigue......Page 740
21.21 The Coffin-Manson Equation......Page 745
21.22 Certain Practical Aspects of Fatigue......Page 746
Problems......Page 747
References......Page 748
A: ANGLES BETWEEN CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES IN THE CUBIC SYSTEM* (IN DEGREES)......Page 750
B: ANGLES BETWEEN CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES FOR HEXAGONAL ELEMENTS*......Page 752
D: CONVERSION FACTORS AND CONSTANTS......Page 753
F: SELECTED VALUES OF INTRINSIC STACKING-FAULT ENERGY γ[sub(T)], TWIN-BOUNDARY ENERGY γ[sub(T)], GRAIN-BOUNDARY ENERGY γ[sub(G)], AND CRYSTAL-VAPOR SURFACE ENERGY γ FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS IN ERGS/CM[sup(2*)]......Page 754
LIST OF IMPORTANT SYMBOLS......Page 756
LIST OF GREEK LETTER SYMBOLS......Page 758
INDEX......Page 760