Physical geography: the global environment

Cover......Page 1
Half Title Page......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 10
PREFACE......Page 14
UNIT 1: Introducing Physical Geography......Page 20
 Geography......Page 21
 Physical Geography and the Scientific Method......Page 23
 Systems and Models in Physical Geography......Page 24
 Geographic Magnitude......Page 30
PART ONE: A Planetary Perspective......Page 31
 UNIT 2: The Planet Earth......Page 33
  Earth’s Shape and Size......Page 34
  Spheres of the Earth System......Page 35
  Earth’s Hemispheres......Page 38
  Continents and Oceans......Page 39
 UNIT 3: Mapping Earth’s Surface......Page 46
  Location on Earth......Page 47
  Depicting Earth: Map Projections......Page 49
  Map Interpretation: Isolines......Page 53
  Evolving Cartographic Technology......Page 57
 UNIT 4: Earth–Sun Relationships......Page 63
  Earth’s Planetary Motions......Page 64
  Seasonality......Page 65
  Insolation and Its Variation......Page 68
 UNIT 5: Radiation and the Heat Balance of Planet Earth......Page 74
  Energy and Heat Transfer......Page 75
  Global Energy Balance......Page 77
  Making Sense of Global Energetics......Page 83
PART TWO: Atmospheric and Oceanic Processes......Page 85
 UNIT 6: Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere......Page 87
  Atmospheric Constituents......Page 88
  The Origin, Evolution, and Maintenance of the Atmosphere......Page 89
  Contents and Arrangement of the Atmosphere......Page 92
  The Layered Structure of the Atmosphere......Page 98
 UNIT 7: Temperatures of the Lower Atmosphere......Page 104
  What Is Temperature?......Page 105
  Temperature in the Troposphere......Page 106
  The Horizontal Distribution of Temperature......Page 110
 UNIT 8: Air Pressure and Winds......Page 116
  Atmospheric Pressure......Page 117
  Air Movement in the Atmosphere......Page 118
  Large-Scale Wind Systems......Page 121
  Small-Scale Wind Systems......Page 122
 UNIT 9: Circulation Patterns of the Atmosphere......Page 127
  A Model of the Surface Circulation......Page 128
  The Actual Surface Circulation Pattern......Page 130
  Secondary Surface Circulation: Monsoonal Wind Flows......Page 134
  Circulation of the Upper Atmosphere......Page 136
 UNIT 10: Circulation of the World Ocean......Page 140
  The Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere System......Page 141
  Generation of Ocean Currents......Page 142
  Wind-driven Flow......Page 143
  The Geography of Ocean Currents......Page 145
  El Nino–Southern Oscillation......Page 148
 UNIT 11: Atmospheric Moisture and the Water Balance......Page 153
  Measuring Water Vapor......Page 154
  The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 155
  Evaporation......Page 157
  Condensation and Clouds......Page 160
  Precipitation......Page 161
  The Surface Water Balance......Page 164
 UNIT 12: Precipitation, Air Masses, and Fronts......Page 169
  Lifting Mechanisms That Produce Precipitation......Page 170
 UNIT 13: Weather Systems......Page 183
  Low-Latitude Weather Systems......Page 184
  Weather Systems of the Middle and Higher Latitudes......Page 190
  Energy and Moisture Within Weather Systems......Page 193
PART THREE: Climate and Climate Change......Page 197
 UNIT 14: Climate Classification and Regionalization......Page 199
  Classifying Climates......Page 200
  The Köppen Climate Classification System......Page 201
  The Size and Regional Distribution of Climate Types......Page 203
  Extent and Boundaries of Climate Regions......Page 208
 UNIT 15: Tropical (A) and Arid (B) Climates......Page 210
  The Major Tropical (A) Climates......Page 211
  The Major Arid (B) Climates......Page 216
 UNIT 16: Mild Midlatitude (C) Climates......Page 223
  The Perpetually Moist (Cf) Climates......Page 224
  The Dry-Summer (Cs) Climates......Page 230
  The Dry-Winter (Cw) Climates......Page 232
 UNIT 17: Higher-Latitude (D, E) and High-Altitude (H) Climates......Page 235
  The Major Severe Midlatitude (D) Climates......Page 236
  The Polar (E) Climates......Page 239
  High-Altitude (H) Climates......Page 244
 UNIT 18: Natural Climate Change......Page 248
  Climate Indicators......Page 249
  Climate Change Mechanisms and Feedbacks......Page 251
  Earth’s Climate History......Page 253
 UNIT 19: Global Warming and Human Impacts on Climate......Page 261
  Human Impact on Climate: Processes......Page 262
  Global Warming Observed: Temperature Change in the Industrial Period......Page 263
  Implicating Humans in Observed Global Warming......Page 268
  Future Human Impacts on Climate......Page 270
PART FOUR: The Biosphere......Page 277
 UNIT 20: Biogeochemical Cycles......Page 279
  Building Blocks of Life......Page 280
  Soil and Vegetation: A Critical Interface......Page 281
  The Global Carbon Cycle......Page 282
  The Global Nitrogen Cycle......Page 284
 UNIT 21: Formation of Soils......Page 290
  The Formation of Soil......Page 292
  Soil Profiles......Page 295
  Soil Regimes......Page 297
 UNIT 22: Properties of Soil......Page 300
  Physical Properties of Soil......Page 301
  Chemical Properties of Soil......Page 304
  Soils of Hills and Valleys......Page 305
  Development of the Soil System......Page 306
 UNIT 23: Classification and Mapping of Soils......Page 309
  Soil Taxonomy......Page 310
 UNIT 24: Biogeographic Processes......Page 324
  Dynamics of the Biosphere......Page 325
  Plant Succession......Page 329
  Geographic Dispersal......Page 332
 UNIT 25: The Global Distribution of Plants......Page 338
  Biomes......Page 339
  Principal Terrestrial Biomes......Page 343
 UNIT 26: Zoogeography: Spatial Aspects of Animal Populations......Page 350
  Emergence of Zoogeography......Page 351
  Range, Habitat, and Niche......Page 353
  Processes of Evolution......Page 354
  Earth’s Zoogeographic Realms......Page 356
  Ecological Zoogeography and Conservation......Page 358
PART FIVE: The Restless Crust......Page 363
 UNIT 27: Minerals and Igneous Rocks......Page 365
  Minerals......Page 366
  Igneous Rocks......Page 369
 UNIT 28: Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks......Page 374
  Sedimentary Rocks......Page 375
  Metamorphic Rocks......Page 380
  The Rock Cycle......Page 382
 UNIT 29: Planet Earth in Profile: The Layered Interior......Page 385
  Evidence of Earth’s Internal Structure......Page 386
  Earth’s Internal Layers......Page 387
  Earth’s Outer Layers......Page 389
  The Crustal Surface......Page 391
 UNIT 30: Plates of the Lithosphere......Page 395
  Wegener’s Hypothesis......Page 396
  Plate Tectonics......Page 397
  Movement of Plates......Page 400
 UNIT 31: Plate Movement: Causes and Effects......Page 406
  Isostasy......Page 407
  Evolution of the Continents......Page 411
 UNIT 32: Volcanism and Its Landforms......Page 416
  Distribution of Volcanic Activity......Page 417
  Volcanic Landforms......Page 418
  Hot Spots......Page 423
  Volcanoes and Human History......Page 424
  Landscapes of Volcanism......Page 426
 UNIT 33: Earthquakes and Landscapes......Page 429
  What Produces Earthquakes?......Page 430
  Measuring Earthquake Strength......Page 431
  Tsunamis......Page 432
  Earthquake Damage......Page 433
  Earthquake Distribution......Page 434
  Earthquakes and Landscapes......Page 437
 UNIT 34: Faults, Folds, and Landscapes......Page 440
  Faults......Page 441
  Fold Structures......Page 445
  Regional Deformation......Page 448
PART SIX: Sculpting the Surface: Weathering, Mass Movements, and Flowing Water......Page 449
 UNIT 35: The Formation of Landforms and Landscapes......Page 451
  Processes That Shape Landforms and Landscapes......Page 452
  Gravity, Slopes, and Relief......Page 455
  Erosion and Tectonics......Page 456
 UNIT 36: Weathering Processes......Page 459
  Mechanical Weathering......Page 460
  Chemical Weathering......Page 462
  Geography of Weathering......Page 465
 UNIT 37: Mass Movements......Page 468
  Slope Stability and Mass Movement......Page 469
  Forms of Mass Movement......Page 472
  The Importance of Mass Movements......Page 476
 UNIT 38: Water in the Lithosphere......Page 479
  Water at the Surface......Page 480
  Water Beneath the Surface......Page 483
  Human Use of Groundwater......Page 486
 UNIT 39: Slopes and Streams......Page 490
  Erosion of Slopes by Water......Page 491
  Drainage Basins and Sediment Yields......Page 492
  The Work of Streams......Page 493
  The River as a System......Page 499
 UNIT 40: Landscapes Shaped by Stream Erosion......Page 503
  Factors Affecting the Patterns of Stream Erosion......Page 504
  Drainage Patterns......Page 508
  Overcoming Geologic Structure......Page 510
  Long-Term Evolution of the Landscape......Page 511
 UNIT 41: Landforms of the Fluvial System......Page 515
  Alluvial Fans......Page 516
  Landforms of River Valleys......Page 517
  Deltas......Page 523
 UNIT 42: Karst Processes and Landforms......Page 527
  Karst Development......Page 528
  Karst Landforms and Landscapes......Page 530
  Karst and Caves......Page 534
PART SEVEN: Sculpting the Surface: Ice, Wind, and Coastal Processes......Page 537
 UNIT 43: Glacial Erosion and Deposition......Page 539
  Glaciers of the Past......Page 541
  The Glacier as a System......Page 542
  Glacial Movement and Erosion......Page 544
 UNIT 44: Landforms and Landscapes of Continental Glaciation......Page 550
  Ice Sheets Present and Past......Page 551
  North America’s Glaciations......Page 555
  Landscapes Shaped by Continental Ice Sheets......Page 556
  The Great Lakes and Their Evolution......Page 560
  Pluvial Lakes......Page 561
 UNIT 45: Landforms and Landscapes of Mountain Glaciers......Page 563
  Global Distribution of Mountain Glaciers Today......Page 564
  Erosional Landforms of Mountain Glaciers......Page 568
  Depositional Landforms of Mountain Glaciers......Page 571
 UNIT 46: Periglacial Environments and Landscapes......Page 573
  Permafrost......Page 574
  Geomorphic Processes in Periglacial Environments......Page 575
  Landforms of Periglacial Regions......Page 577
  Understanding Periglacial Environments......Page 579
 UNIT 47: Wind as a Geomorphic Agent......Page 581
  Wind Erosion......Page 582
  Landforms Shaped by Wind......Page 583
  Erosional Landforms......Page 584
  Dunes......Page 585
  Loess......Page 587
 UNIT 48: Coastal Processes......Page 591
  Waves......Page 592
  Erosion and Transportation of Sediment by Wave Action......Page 594
  Tides......Page 597
  Storms and Crustal Movements......Page 599
 UNIT 49: Coastal Landforms and Landscapes......Page 602
  Depositional Landforms......Page 603
  Erosional Landforms......Page 606
  Coastal Landscapes......Page 608
  Living Shorelines......Page 610
APPENDIX SI and Customary Units and Their Conversions......Page 612
PRONUNCIATION GUIDE......Page 614
GLOSSARY......Page 620
CREDITS......Page 652
INDEX......Page 656