Photovoltaic laboratory : safety, code-compliance, and commercial off-the-shelf equipment

Content: PrefaceAcknowledgmentsIntroductionHow to Use This TextbookThe AuthorSafetyIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesWorking in Extreme Weather ConditionsThe Hot, Dry ClimateThe Cold ClimateUnderstanding Heat StressHeat Exhaustion-Symptoms and Appropriate ResponsesHeat Stroke-Symptoms and Appropriate ResponsesDehydration-Symptoms and Appropriate ResponsesHypothermia-Symptoms and Appropriate ResponsesFrostbite-Symptoms and Appropriate ResponsesPreventing Heat or Cold StressGeneral Safety TrainingPersonal Protective Equipment (PPE)Eye Protection and GlovesProtective Helmets (a/k/a Hard Hats)ApronsFootwearWorking at HeightsSafety BarriersGuardrail SystemsSafety NettingPersonal Fall Arrest: Body HarnessesRescue PlanLadders and Ladder SafetyElectrical SafetyOverhead Power LinesOperating Electrical EquipmentMoving and Carrying Heavy ObjectsRoofs and AtticsLockout/TagoutSafety PostersNotesReferencesTrade Math for PV-Measurements, Units, and CalculationsIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesThe Decimal System of NotationScientific Notation (Exponential Notation [Base 10])Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Dividing in SNMultiplication and DivisionAddition and SubtractionMetric System and PrefixesNonstandard Units of MeasureRational Fractions, Decimal Fractions, Ratios, and PercentagesA-B ComparisonChange of a Value (over Time)Student ExercisesA-B ComparisonSignificant Digits and PrecisionConversion from Metric Units to Imperial (English) Units and BackBasic AlgebraOhm's LawWatt's LawOrder of OperationsTrigonometry of Right TrianglesThe Right TriangleThe Pythagorean TheoremCalculations Involving the Pythagorean TheoremThe Three Trigonometric FunctionsEvaluating the Angle ???? and Inverse Trigonometric FunctionsReciprocal Trigonometric FunctionsLength, Area, and VolumeThe Celestial SphereAnalyzing Word ProblemsMastering the Use of a CalculatorAddition and SubtractionMultiplication and DivisionTrigonometryMeasurements of DC and AC Electrical CircuitsIntroductionDC Electrical CircuitsAC Electrical CircuitsStudent Learning ObjectivesSetupThe CalculatorElectrical ComponentsMeasurement InstrumentsOther EquipmentThe DC Electrical Circuit-An AbstractionBasic Electrical Concepts-Analogy with Water FlowChargeCurrentCurrent ContinuityVoltageResistanceAdditional Circuit Concepts-Power, Energy, Time, FrequencyPowerEnergyTime and FrequencySummary of Circuit ConceptsNominal SpecificationsDMM Measurement AccuracyAbsolute Calibration of Measurement Instruments-StandardsStudent ExercisesMeasuring the Voltage StandardColor Coding for ResistorsMeasuring Resistance with the DMMMeasuring DC Voltage with the DMMSingle BatteriesMultiple Batteries-In Series and in ParallelBench Power SupplyPowering a 12 V LEDPowering a 10 ????, 50 W ResistorAC Circuit TheoryWhat Is a Sinusoidal Signal?Electrical Utility ServiceMeasuring a 120/240 VAC 200 A Split-Phase Service Panel120 VAC Branch Circuit (L1 or L2)240 VAC Branch Circuit (L1 and L2)Measuring Current in a 120 VAC Branch CircuitMeasuring the Voltage, Current, Power, and Energy of a 120 VAC OutletNotesThe Site SurveyIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesOrganization of This LabPrior ActivitiesPreliminary Technical Sales ProposalSample Module RowsDetermination of All Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJs)The Virtual Site SurveyResourcesExample of a Site SurveyCounty Assessor's MapSketch of the Property Including HouseDocumentation of Roof SectionsSite Survey DocumentStudent ExercisesStudent Site SurveyRafter/Truss and Attic DetailsMain Service PanelUse of a SubpanelLocations for Other Major ComponentsGrounding of Electrical ServiceTrenchingShading AnalysisPerforming a Manual Shading Analysis Using the SolarPathfinerPerforming an Advanced Shading Analysis Using the SolarPathfinerPerforming a Shading Analysis Using the Solmetric SunEyeSummary NotesRacking Systems-General ConsiderationsIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesSetupPortrait Versus Landscape LayoutsPositioning the Rails and BracketsThe 25% and 75% RuleMaximum Bracket SpacingStandard Residential Rafter/Truss SpacingConstraints on Portrait OrientationConstraints on Landscape OrientationCase Study: The 60-Cell, 156 mm Square Cell PV ModuleDesign of Layout for a Single PV ModuleSmall Mock Roof DetailsLocating the RaftersPull-Out Strength of Lag BoltsWind Forces on RoofsThe "Simple" ApproachStudent ExercisesModel StructuresCalculations Based on Complicated ApproachRoof-Specific Installation of BracketsNotesAppendix: Racking Systems on Asphalt Composition Shingle RoofsIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesComponents Comprising the Racking System for Composition Shingle RoofsSetupTools Needed for This LabStudent ExercisesDesign Layout for a Single PV ModuleLocating the RaftersBegin LayoutInstalling the BracketsChoice of PostInstalling FlashingDimensioning and Attaching the RailInstalling the PV ModuleAppendix: Racking Systems on Flat Concrete Tile RoofsIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesComponents Comprising the Racking System for a Flat Concrete Tile RoofSetupTools Needed for This LabStudent ExercisesLocating the RaftersThe PV ModuleCharacterization of a PV ModuleIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesSetupThe TiltAll TripodChoice of PV Module-The Renogy RNG-100DComponents and InstrumentsThe GnomonDigital Multimeter (DMM)Bead Wire Thermocouple and Black Electrician's TapeClamp-on AmmeterDigital Infrared ThermometerIrradiance MeterTilt MeterTorpedo LevelThermometerCalculatorStudent ExercisesThe MeasurementsOther Minor DependenciesModeling the PV Cell, Module, and ArrayPrefaceThe Standard MethodologyUniversal Constants: Cell Voltage and Cell Current DensityPartial Shading of PV Modules and Bypass DiodesOvercurrent Protection in Three or More StringsHigh-Performance PV ModulesUnity in the Data?How Many Cells in a Module?Commercial PV Module Electrical CharacteristicsGoals for This LaboratoryIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesSimple Component Models in PSpiceThe Resistor RevisitedThe Voltage SourceThe Current SourceThe DiodePlotting the Diode I-V CharacteristicTwo-Element Model for the PV CellI-V Characteristic for the PV CellSeparately Displaying the Source, Diode, and External Load CurrentsThe Concept of Load ResistanceMaximum Power Point (MPP)Cell EfficiencyI-V and P-V Characteristics for Different Irradiance ValuesEquivalent Circuit for PV Cell Including Parasitic ResistancesTemperature Dependence of PV Cell Characteristics-VocTemperature Dependence of PV Cell Characteristics-IscStudent ExercisesThe PSpice Simulation ProgramThe Spice NetlistCreating the Netlist Using MS NotepadUsing MS Excel to Record and Plot DataUsing the Power of PSpiceUsing the Voltage Source in Place of the Load ResistorThe New NetlistSimulating a PV Module Composed of 36 Each of 6 in. Cells-The Renogy RNG-100DAdding the Parasitic ResistancesLibrary Element "cell_1.lib"The Effects of Shading at the Cell LevelOptional ExercisesLead-Acid Absorbent Glass Mat BatteriesIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesOverview of Lead-Acid BatteriesMarkets for Pb-Acid BatteriesThe Automotive Market Conventional Traction MarketEnergy Storage MarketLead AlloysComparison with Other Battery TechnologiesCharacterizing the Pb-Acid BatteryNominal Battery VoltagesBattery CapacityState of Charge and Depth of DischargeMore on Battery CapacityExpected Life CyclesThree-Stage ChargingStudent ExercisesCharging the PVX-840TDischarging the PVX-840TNotesOff-Grid PV System with DC-Only LoadsIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesOverall Design PhilosophyThe Load ProfileDays of Autonomy and Battery Energy CapacityMeasuring the Depth of DischargePV System RatingSystem Calculations-The Role of Energy Conversion EfficiencyCharge Controller EfficiencyCharging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM BatteryDepth of Discharge and Life CyclesStudent ExercisesLoad Profile CalculationDays of AutonomyTotal Energy RequirementCharging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM BatteryCharging Efficiency of Charge ControllerRequired Energy Storage in BatteryRequired Energy Delivery by PV SystemPV Subsystem SimulationDocument Final System ConfigurationBalance of System Components and Conductor SizingBattery CurrentPV Circuit ConductorsElectrical Schematic and System LayoutLayoutThe Pick ListHanging System ComponentsDocumenting the Final SystemSystem CertificationPhotographsSystem DocumentationSystem SchematicSystem LayoutSystem Certification SheetPhotograph of Integrated SystemNoteOff-Grid PV System with DC and AC LoadsIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesOverall Design PhilosophyAC LoadsDC LoadsDC-to-DC ConvertersThe Load ProfilePV System SizingDays of AutonomyNumber of Battery CyclesSystem CalculationsStudent ExercisesLoad Profile CalculationsDays of AutonomyTotal Energy RequirementSizing the Battery SubsystemSizing the PV Module and Charge ControllerPV Subsystem SimulationDocument the Final System ConfigurationElectrical Schematic and System LayoutLayoutHanging System ComponentsDocumenting the Final SystemElectrical SchematicPhysical LayoutCertification MeasurementsPhotographsOwner's Manual2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with MicroinvertersIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesSetupThe RoofRacking EquipmentChoice of PV ModuleChoice of MicroinverterSimulation of PV Performance and MonitoringPersonal Protective EquipmentMaterials and ToolsHigh-Level DesignEstimated Consumption Based on Electricity Bill HistoryEstimated Consumption Based on Square Footage of Living SpaceEstimated Consumption Based on Load ProfileSite AssessmentPerform Shading AnalysisFinal PV Module LayoutRoof Loading CalculationsMechanical Loading-The Live and Dead LoadsLive LoadsDead Loads-PV System and RoofDead Load of the Roof MaterialThe Total Dead LoadCalculation of Maximum Horizontal Span of a Roof RafterWind LoadingDesign Wind Pressure for the SiteThe SolarMount Code-Compliant Installation Manual 227.3Basic Equation for Design Wind Loading for Components and CladdingTotal Design Load (Downforce and Uplift)Calculating Uplift Force on Each Standoff and Comparing to Pullout Strength of FastenersThe Concept of Design (Safety) MarginFire Marshal SetbacksLayout of PV SystemSingle-Line and Four-Line DiagramsA Single-Line DiagramA Four-Line DiagramNational Electrical Manufacturers AssociationUnderwriters LaboratoryThe Difference between Four-Line and Single-Line DiagramsInstalling Mechanical Subsystems-Standoffs, Flashing, and RailsSketch of Layout in NotebookTransfer Sketch to RoofAttach Standoffs, Flashing, Rails, and AC CableDocumenting the Mechanical Subsystem-Standoffs, Flashing, and Rails Inputs from Roof Details-OptionalInstalling PV Modules, WEEB Grounding Clips, Microinverters, and AC CablingThe First RowThe Installation Map Monitoring SystemInstalling Balance of SystemLightning and Surge ProtectionInstalling the Enphase Monitoring SystemConnecting the Gateway to Enphase Internet SiteEnergizing the SystemActivating the SystemCertification TestingTroubleshootingPost-Start-up LED IndicationsNotes2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with String InverterIntroductionStudent Learning ObjectivesHigh-Level Design RequirementSetupString SizingResources for Weather Data for the Installation SiteChecking for Maximum System VoltageMonitoringFour-Line and Single-Line Diagrams for the String Inverter SystemModifying the Mechanical SubsystemAttic PenetrationInstalling Balance of SystemLightning and Surge ProtectionInstalling the TED Monitoring SystemPreparing the Main Service PanelInstalling the MTU and Current TransformersInstalling the GatewayRemote DisplayFootprints Software SetupCertification TestingTroubleshootingAppendix I: Small Mock RoofsAppendix II: Roll-Around WallsAppendix III: 21 ft. by 18 ft. Roof