Photomechanics

Cover......Page 1
Topics in Applied Physics 77......Page 2
Photomechanics......Page 4
Preface......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Fermat\'s Principle and the Law of Refraction......Page 16
First-Order Optics......Page 18
Aberrations......Page 22
Wave-Optics Fundamentals......Page 26
Young\'s Double Slit......Page 27
Michelson Interferometer......Page 28
Coherence and Light Sources......Page 29
Main Interferometers Used in Optical Engineering......Page 30
Fizeau Interferometer and Newtons Rings......Page 31
Twyman-Green Interferometer......Page 34
Ronchi and Lateral-Shear Interferometers......Page 37
Talbot Interferometer and Moiré Deflectometry......Page 41
Foucault Test and Schlieren Techniques......Page 42
Two-Wavelength Interferometry......Page 43
Thin Holograms......Page 44
Thick Holograms......Page 45
References......Page 46
Introduction......Page 48
Stress......Page 49
Stress Transformation......Page 50
Stress Transformation Using Mohr\'s Circle......Page 51
Displacement and Strain......Page 52
Strain Transformation......Page 54
Stress-Strain Relations......Page 55
Boundary Conditions......Page 56
Theory of Elasticity Approach......Page 57
Plane Stress Formulation......Page 59
Plane Strain Formulation......Page 60
Strength of Materials Approach......Page 61
Axial Loading......Page 62
Bending of Beams......Page 64
Combined Bending and Axial Load......Page 67
Conclusion......Page 68
Further Reading......Page 69
Introduction......Page 70
Local and Global Strategies......Page 72
Local Phase detection......Page 73
Characteristic Polynomial and Diagram......Page 74
Aliased Algorithms......Page 77
Self-Calibrating Algorithms......Page 79
Windowed-DFT Algorithm......Page 81
Hermitian Symmetry of the Coefficients......Page 82
Phasor Representation......Page 83
Relation with the Fourier Transform Approach......Page 86
Relation with Averaging and Data Windowing......Page 88
Relation with the Recursion Method......Page 90
Global Phase Detection......Page 92
General Evaluation......Page 96
Effect of the Miscalibration......Page 98
Average of the Phase Noise......Page 99
Variance of the Phase Noise......Page 100
Phase Unwrapping......Page 101
Spatial Approach......Page 102
Gray Code......Page 104
Multistep Process......Page 107
Two-Step Process......Page 108
Conclusion......Page 109
Appendix: Table of Algorithms......Page 110
References......Page 114
Holographic Interferometry......Page 118
Types of Holographic Interferometry......Page 119
Thermoplastic Camera......Page 122
Mapping of the Resolved Part of Displacement......Page 124
Determination of the Wavefront Phase Using Phase-shifting Interferometry......Page 125
Out-of-plane Displacement Measurement......Page 126
In-plane Displacement Measurement......Page 127
Holographic Shearing Interferometry......Page 130
Comparative Holographic Interferometry......Page 132
Vibration Analysis......Page 134
Holographic Contouring......Page 136
Speckle Metrology......Page 139
Focused Speckle Photography......Page 140
Defocused Speckle Photography......Page 143
Speckle Shearing Photography......Page 144
Speckle Interferometry......Page 146
Schemes to Obtain Visualization of Speckle Correlation Fringes......Page 147
Speckle Interferometers Sensitive to Out-of-plane Displacements......Page 149
Speckle Interferometers Sensitive to In-plane Displacements......Page 150
Speckle Shearing Interferometry......Page 155
References......Page 160
Introduction......Page 167
Basic Concepts......Page 168
Load Application......Page 172
Specimen Gratings......Page 173
Fringe Counting......Page 174
Carrier Fringes......Page 176
Out-of-Plane Deformation......Page 178
Immersion Interferometer......Page 180
Curved Surfaces......Page 182
Replication of Deformed Gratings......Page 186
Thermal Deformations of Microelectronics Devices......Page 187
Textile Composites......Page 189
Fracture Mechanics......Page 192
Micromechanics: Grain Deformations......Page 193
Basic Concepts......Page 196
Additional Considerations......Page 199
Phase Stepping (or Quasi-heterodyne)\nMethod......Page 200
Post-buckling Behavior of a Composite Column......Page 201
Pre-buckling Behavior of an Aluminum Channel......Page 205
Warpage of Electronic Devices......Page 207
Warpage by Phase Stepping......Page 208
Warpage by O/DFM......Page 209
References......Page 210
Light and Complex Notation......Page 213
Polarization of Light......Page 214
Birefringent Materials......Page 216
The Stress-Optic Law......Page 218
Plane Polariscope......Page 220
Circular Polariscope......Page 223
Computer Evaluation of Photoelastic Fringe Patterns......Page 226
Digital Image Processing......Page 227
Fringe Multiplication......Page 229
Determination of the Isochromatic Fringe Order......Page 231
Phase-Stepping Method......Page 232
Two-Wavelength Method......Page 235
RGB Color Method......Page 237
Polarization-Stepping Method......Page 238
Phase-Stepping Method......Page 241
Stress Analysis......Page 242
System and Error Assessment......Page 243
References......Page 246
Optical Fiber Strain Sensing\rin Engineering Mechanics......Page 249
Optical Arrangement......Page 250
Response to Strain and Temperature......Page 252
Extrinsic Fabry-Perot Strain Sensor......Page 255
Response to Strain and Temperature......Page 257
Self-temperature Compensation......Page 259
EFP Sensor Variants......Page 260
Bragg Grating Strain Sensor......Page 262
Bragg Grating Fabrication......Page 263
Effects of Gradients......Page 266
Sensor Multiplexing......Page 267
Fiber-Optic Coatings and Cables......Page 269
Commercial Packaging......Page 272
Sensor Bonding Techniques......Page 273
Demodulation......Page 274
Serrodyne Fringe Counting (IFP Sensors)......Page 275
White Light Cross-Correlator (EFP Sensors)......Page 276
Scanning Fabry-Perot Filter (Bragg Grating Sensors)......Page 278
Spectral Interrogation (EFP Sensors)......Page 279
Sensor Comparison......Page 282
References......Page 285
Introduction: Monitoring versus Measuring Structures......Page 290
Long-Gage versus Short-Gage Sensors......Page 291
Interferometric Sensors......Page 292
Strain and Temperature Sensitivity......Page 293
Demodulation Techniques......Page 294
Sensor Packaging......Page 297
Application Example: Monitoring the Versoix Bridge......Page 300
Intensity-Based Sensors......Page 301
Principles......Page 303
Measurement Techniques......Page 304
Sensor Packaging......Page 306
Application Example: Temperature Monitoring of the Luzzone Dam......Page 307
Conclusions......Page 308
References......Page 309
Introduction......Page 311
Optical Phase Shift due to Transmission through an Optically Isotropic Linear Elastic Medium......Page 313
Optical Phase-Shift due to Reflection from a Polished Surface......Page 314
Shearing Interferometry......Page 315
A Dual-Grating Shearing Interferometer - The Coherent Gradient Sensor (CGS)......Page 316
A Polarization-Based Shearing Interferometer: Compact Polariscope / Shearing Interferometer (PSI)......Page 320
Optical Caustics......Page 325
Applications......Page 327
Compressive Line Load on the Edge of a Plate......Page 328
Shearing Interferometry......Page 329
Fracture Mechanics......Page 331
Caustics......Page 332
Shearing Interferometry......Page 333
References......Page 335
Introduction......Page 338
Basic Concepts......Page 341
Two-Dimensional Image Correlation: Mathematical Formulation......Page 345
Calibration Process for DIC-2D System......Page 348
Basic Concepts......Page 349
Determination of Aspect Ratio,......Page 353
Determination of Camera Parameters......Page 354
Profile and 3-D Displacement Measurements......Page 355
Measurement of Crack-Tip Opening Displacement During Mixed Mode I/II Crack Growths Using DIC-2D......Page 358
Local Crack-Tip Closure Measurements Using DIC-2D......Page 362
Large Specimen Tests......Page 365
Profiling of Structures for Reverse Engineering......Page 369
Measurement of Three-Dimensional Surface Deformations in Wide Panels Using DIC-3D......Page 373
Discussion......Page 381
Summary......Page 382
References......Page 383
Introduction......Page 388
The Scattering and Dynamic Properties of Seeding Particles......Page 390
Fundamentals of LDV......Page 391
Fourier Optics Model of LDV......Page 396
The Doppler Signal and Signal Processing......Page 401
LDV Measurements in Practice......Page 404
Planar Doppler Velocimetry (PDV)......Page 406
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)......Page 410
Removal of Directional Ambiguity......Page 414
PIV Measurements in Practice......Page 415
Holographic Particle Image Velocimetry (HPIV)......Page 417
Conclusions, Discussion and Future Development......Page 423
References......Page 425
Historical......Page 428
Nature and Importance of Surfaces......Page 429
Scale of Size Arguments......Page 431
Designer Surfaces......Page 432
Reference......Page 434
Mechanical Stylus......Page 437
Comparison Between the Mechanical and Optical Stylus......Page 438
Basic Instrument......Page 440
The Stylus Method (Mechanical)......Page 442
The Optical Methods......Page 443
Curve Fitting for Form......Page 448
Reason for Filtering......Page 449
Type and Value of Filter......Page 451
General......Page 454
Average Parameters......Page 455
Peak Parameters (General)......Page 456
Spacing Parameters......Page 457
Peak Parameters (Statistical)......Page 458
Effects of Filtering on Parameter Values......Page 460
Size from the Probability Density Function......Page 461
Spacing Information......Page 462
The Autocorrelation Function......Page 463
General......Page 468
Sampling......Page 469
Characterization......Page 470
Directionality......Page 471
Parameters......Page 472
Conclusions......Page 473
References......Page 474
Index......Page 477