Photobiology

Photobiology......Page 1
Title page......Page 4
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 26
Acknowledgments......Page 28
Part I: Introducing light......Page 30
1.1 Reflection......Page 32
1.2 Refraction......Page 33
1.3 Fermat's Principle......Page 34
1.5.1 What Are Waves?......Page 35
1.5.2 Wave Characteristics......Page 36
1.6 Diffraction and Resolution Limits......Page 40
1.7 The Quantum Theory and Photons......Page 42
1.8.1 The Energy of Bound Electrons......Page 45
1.9 Electronic Structure of Atoms and Molecules......Page 48
1.10 The Planck Equation and Photochemical Reactions......Page 50
Bibliography......Page 51
2.1 Electronic Transitions......Page 52
2.2 The Multiplicity of the Electronic States: Another Important Factor of the Probability of Transition......Page 53
2.3.1 Absorption of Light by Molecules......Page 54
2.3.2 The Extinction Coefficient: Tlie Beer-Lambert Law......Page 55
2.3.3 The Franck-Condon Principle......Page 57
2.3.4 Deactivation from Singlet Excited States......Page 58
2.3.4.2 Deactivation of the First Singlet Excited State by Intersystem Crossing to the Triplet State......Page 59
2.3.5.1 Effect of Multiplicity of States on Lifetimes......Page 61
2.3.5.2 Delayed Fluorescence and Phosphorescence......Page 63
2.3.6.1 Fluorescence Quantum Yield......Page 64
2.3.7 The Quenching of Singlet and Triplet States: The Stern-Volmer Equation......Page 66
2.3.8.1 Energy Transfer between Singlet States: The Result of Energy Transfer Is Quenching of Donor Fluorescence and Electronic Excitation of the Acceptor Molecule......Page 67
2.3.8.3 Energy Transfer between Triplet and Singlet States......Page 70
Bibliography......Page 71
3.1.1 "Conventional" Continuous Light Sources......Page 72
3.1.1.2 Xenon Arc Lamps......Page 74
3.1.2 Monochromators and Optical Filters......Page 75
3.1.2.2 Filters......Page 76
3.1.3 Actinometry......Page 78
3.1.4 Coherent Light Sources: Lasers......Page 79
3.2.1 Absorption Spectrophotometry......Page 81
3.2.2.1.2 Determination of Fluorescence Quantum Yields......Page 83
3.2.2.1.3 Determination of Fluorescence Excitation Spectra......Page 85
3.2.3 Photoacoustic Spectroscopy......Page 86
3.2.4 An Outline of Raman Spectroscopy......Page 89
3.3.1.1 Pulsed Source Fluorometers......Page 91
3.3.1.2 Phase Fluorometers......Page 92
3.3.2.1 General Description of Laser Flash Photolysis Equipment......Page 94
3.4 Microspectroscopic Methods for the Study of Living Cells......Page 95
Bibliography......Page 98
Part II: Light and Biological Systems......Page 100
4.1 Introduction......Page 102
4.2.1 Laser Flash Spectroscopy as a Tool to Unravel Macromolecular Dynamics: Probing Hemoglobin Biochemistry with Light......Page 103
4.2.2.1 Identification of Triplet-Triplet Transient Absorption......Page 106
4.2.2.2 Determination of Molar Extinction Coefficients and Triplet Formation Quantum Yield......Page 108
4.3.1 Photoionization of Tryptophan in Aqueous Medium......Page 110
4.3.2 An Insight into the Reactivity of the Triplet State of Aromatic Molecules: A Clue to the Understanding of Photosensitized Reactions......Page 112
4.4.1 An Introduction to the Mechanism of 1O2 Formation......Page 115
4.4.2 Decay of 1O2 in the Absence of a Chemical Reaction......Page 116
4.4.3 Mechanistic and Kinetic Study of tlie Cliemical Reactivity of 1O2 in Photosensitized Reactions Involving Biological Substrates......Page 117
4.4.3.1 Main Mechanisms of the Single Oxygen-Mediated Reactions......Page 119
4.4.3.2.1 Charge Transfer Quenching of 1O2......Page 121
4.4.3.2.2 Quenching by Energy Transfer......Page 122
4.4.4 Transformation of a Type II Photodynamic Reaction into Type I......Page 123
4.5 Oxygen-independent Photosensitized Reactions......Page 124
Bibliography......Page 125
5. Photochemistry of Biological Molecules......Page 126
5.1.1.1 Hydration Products......Page 127
5.1.1.2 Cyclobutane-Type Dimers......Page 128
5.1.1.5 DNA-Protein Cross-links......Page 130
5.1.2 Photochemistry of Purines......Page 131
5.2.1 Direct Photochemistry of Simple Amino Acids and Peptides at Room Temperature in Aerated Solutions at Neutral pH......Page 132
5.2.1.1 Tryptophan......Page 133
5.2.1.2 Tyrosine and Cystine......Page 134
5.2.3 Photochemistry of Proteins......Page 135
5.3.1 Photorearrangement of 7-Dehyclrocholesterol......Page 138
5.3.2.1 Reaction of 1O2 with Cholesterol......Page 139
5.3.2.2 Oxidation of PUFAs......Page 140
5.4 The Main Cell Photosensitizers......Page 143
Bibliography......Page 145
6.1 Introduction......Page 146
6.3 Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence......Page 147
6.5 Chemiluminescence of a Proximate Carcinogen 7,8-diol-benzo(a)pyrene......Page 149
6.6 The Origin of Bioluminescence......Page 150
6.6.4 Bioluminescent Systems......Page 151
6.7 Bioluminescence of Eukaryotes......Page 152
6.8 Types of Bioluminescent Reactions......Page 153
6.9.1 Activation......Page 154
6.10.1 Cypridina Luminescence......Page 155
6.10.2 Firefly Bioluminescence......Page 156
6.10.3 Bioluminescence of Coelenterates......Page 157
6.10.3.1 Bioluminescence of Renilla......Page 160
6.10.5 Bioluminescence of Bacteria......Page 161
Bibliography......Page 164
7.1 The Problem With Ozone Depletion......Page 166
7.2.1 Factors Affecting the Present Solar UV Climate......Page 167
7.2.2 Nature of Biological Photoreactions: The Radiation Amplification Factor......Page 168
7.3.1 Biological Action Spectra......Page 169
7.4 Human Health and UVB Radiation in the Environment......Page 172
7.4.1.4 Intraocular Melanoma......Page 173
7.4.2.4 Tuberculosis and Leprosy......Page 174
7.4.3 Skin Cancer......Page 175
7.5.1 Artificial and Solar Radiation......Page 176
7.5.3 Effects on Plant Function: Pliotosyntliesis and Transpiration......Page 178
7.6 Aquatic Ecosystems......Page 179
7.6.1 Primary Producers: Phytoplankton......Page 180
7.6.1.2 Development and Physiology......Page 182
7.6.1.4 UVB Targets......Page 183
7.6.2.4 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Global Climate Change......Page 184
Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion and Ultraviolet Radiations......Page 185
Bibliography......Page 186
8.1.1 Circadian Rhythms......Page 188
8.1.2 Scintillons......Page 189
8.3 Relationship Between Natural Fluorescence, Photosynthesis, and Chlorophyll Concetration in the Sea......Page 190
8.3.2 The Two Methods of Fluorescence Measurements......Page 191
8.4.1 The Coastal Zone Color Scanner......Page 192
8.4.2 The Signal Measured by the CZCS: The Phytoplankton Pigments......Page 194
8.4.3 Relationship between Radiance Measurements and Pigment Concentration......Page 195
8.5 Phytochromes in Marine Algae......Page 196
8.6 Fluorescent Pterins and Flavins in Marine Phytoplanktons......Page 197
8.6.2 Pterins......Page 198
8.6.3 Pterins and Flavins in Zooplanlcton......Page 199
8.6.4 Coral Samples from French Polynesia......Page 201
8.7 Coral Tissue Fluorescence......Page 202
Bibliography......Page 203
9.2 The Hill Reaction......Page 206
9.3.1 Noncyclic Electron Transport......Page 207
9.3.2 The Role of Inorganic Ions in PSII......Page 210
9.3.3 The Electron Transport Chain from PSII to PSI......Page 211
9.3.4 The Energy Balance of Photosynthesis......Page 212
9.3.5 Energy and Reducing Power Supplied by the Dark Pliase of Photosynthesis......Page 213
9.4 Cyclic Transport of Electrons in PSI......Page 216
9.5 Light-independent Carbon Dioxide Fixation: The Calvin Cycle......Page 218
9.6.1 Charge Separation through the Membrane of the Thylakoids......Page 220
9.6.3 Photorespiration......Page 221
9.7 Light Collection: Relationship Between the Chlorophyll Antenna and Reaction Center, a Clue to Effectiveness of Photosynthesis......Page 222
9.7.1 Organization of the Photosynthetic Pigments and Transfer of the Excitation Energy......Page 223
9.8.2 Intermediate Order......Page 225
9.9 Chlorophyll Fluorescence......Page 226
9.9.1 Chlorophyll Fluorescence Lifetimes......Page 227
9.10 The Kautsky Phenomenon......Page 228
9.12 Classification of Photosynthetic Bacteria......Page 230
9.14 Purple Bacteria......Page 231
9.14.1 Trapping of Excitation Energy in Photosynthetic Purple Bacteria......Page 232
9.14.2 Charge Separation in Photosynthetic Purple Bacteria......Page 233
9.16 Light-harvesting System of Cyanobacteria......Page 234
9.17 Bacteriorhodopsin: Definition and Structure......Page 235
9.18 Primary Photoevent, Intermediates, and the Bacteriorhodopsin Cycle......Page 236
9.20 The Initial 100-psec Interval......Page 237
9.21 Time-resolved Absorption Experiments on the Femtosecond Scale......Page 239
9.22 Basic Principles for Creating an Entirely Synthetic System......Page 240
9.23 Quinone-substituted Porphyrin Dimers as Photosynthetic Model Systems......Page 241
9.24.1 Dyads......Page 242
9.24.2 Triads......Page 243
9.24.3 Tetrads......Page 244
9.24.4 Pentads......Page 246
9.25 Selected Readings: Photosynthetic Production of Hydrocarbons......Page 247
9.26 The Graetzel Cell: A Solar Cell Based on Photosynthesis and Photography......Page 251
Bibliography......Page 252
10.1 Light as a Source of Information......Page 256
10.2.1 Red and Far-Red Absorbing Phytochrome......Page 257
10.2.4 The Action of High Irradiance......Page 259
10.3 Chemical Structure of Phytochrome......Page 260
10.3.2 Surface-Enhanced Resonance Raman Scattering Spectroscopy......Page 263
10.5 Mutants in Phytochrome Research......Page 264
10.6 Coaction Between Phytochrome and Blue/UV Receptors......Page 265
10.7 Anatomical Connection Between Retinohypothalamic Tract, Suprachiasmatic Nuclei, and Pinealocytes......Page 266
10.8 Control of Melatonin Synthesis and Secretion......Page 267
10.9 Pathway of Melatonin Synthesis......Page 268
10.10 Stimulus Perception and Transduction......Page 272
10.11.2 Photophobic Responses......Page 273
10.12.1 Individual Cell Methods......Page 274
10.14 Photomovement of Whole Cells......Page 275
10.14.1.1 The Primary Photoreaction......Page 276
10.14.2.2 Receptor Pigments for Photomovement......Page 277
10.14.3.2 Receptor Pigments for Photomovement......Page 278
10.14.4 Stentor coeruleus......Page 279
10.14.4.2 Primary Photoreaction and Stimulus-Response Coupling......Page 280
10.14.6 Euglena......Page 281
10.15.1 Photoreceptor Pigments for Photodinesis......Page 282
10.15.2 Polarotropism of Mougeotia Chloroplasts......Page 283
Bibliography......Page 284
Part III: Light and Health......Page 288
11.1 The Primary Photoevent in Vision......Page 290
11.2 The Rod Cells......Page 292
11.3 Signal Transduction Between the Disk Membrane and the Rod Outer Membrane......Page 294
11.4 Multidisciplinary Study of Sensory Transduction in Rod Vision......Page 296
11.5 The Stryer Scheme of Molecular Mechanism of Visual Transduction (As Revised by Liebman)......Page 300
11.6 Rods and Cones......Page 302
Bibliography......Page 303
12.1.1 Introduction......Page 304
12.1.2 UV Radiation Survival Curves......Page 305
12.2.2 Photoreactivation......Page 307
12.2.3 Excision Repair......Page 308
12.2.4 Inducible SOS Response......Page 309
12.2.5 Postreplication Repair......Page 310
12.2.6.1 Epidemiology of UV-DNA Repair Capacity......Page 311
12.3.1 Action Spectrum of UVA......Page 312
12.3.3.1 Single-Strand DNA Breaks......Page 313
12.3.3.3 Formation of Active Oxygen Intermediates......Page 314
12.3.3.5 Cytoplasmic Targets of UVA......Page 315
12.3.3.6 Induction of Anuclear Organelle Damage......Page 316
12.3.4 Pigmentation by UVA......Page 317
12.3.6 Effect of UVA on Immune Function......Page 318
12.4.1 Definition of Pliotooxidative Stress......Page 319
12.4.2.1.1 Catalase......Page 320
12.4.2.2.1 Lipid-Soluble Antioxidants......Page 321
12.4.2.2.1.1 Carotenoids......Page 322
12.4.2.2.2 Water-Soluble Antioxidants......Page 324
12.5.2.1 Melanosomes......Page 325
12.5.2.2 Photoprotection by Melanins......Page 327
Bibliography......Page 328
13.1 Definition of Optical and Structural Properties of the Skin......Page 332
13.1.1 Perception of Skin Color......Page 333
13.1.2.1 Measurement of Spectral Transmittance and Remittance through Stratum Corneum or Dermis......Page 335
13.1.2.2 Transmission of UV Radiation through the Skin......Page 336
13.2.1 The Kubelka-Munk Model for Radiation Transfer in a Scattering, Absorbing Medium......Page 337
13.2.2 Charting of Tissue Optical Properties Derived from Reflection and Transmission......Page 340
13.3 Optics of the Stratum Corneum and Epidermis......Page 341
13.5 In vivo Remittance Spectroscopy......Page 342
13.6.1 Photoprotection......Page 343
13.7 Photomedical Treatments and Cutaneous Optics......Page 344
13.9.1.1 Optical Fibers Coupled to a Photodetector......Page 345
13.9.1.2.1 Monte Carlo Simulation......Page 346
13.10 Experimental Time-resolved Methods......Page 347
13.10.1 Photon Migration in Tissues Studied by Time-Resolved Wave Spectroscopy......Page 348
Bibliography......Page 350
14.1.1 UV Spectrum......Page 352
14.1.1.1 UVB Effects......Page 353
14.1.3 Epidemiology of Skin Cancer......Page 354
14.1.6 Effects of Infrared Radiation......Page 355
14.1.7 The Law of Reciprocity......Page 356
14.2.1 Cellular and Vascular Responses to Sunlight (Pigmentation, Erythema) and the Minimal Erythemal Dose......Page 357
14.2.4 UV-lnduced Injury to Langerhans Cells: Epidermal Target......Page 358
14.2.6 UVB Radiation Protocols for Experimental Studies in Mice......Page 359
14.2.7.1 Studies Using Human Subjects......Page 360
14.2.8 UVB Susceptibility and Tumor Necrosis Factor......Page 361
14.2.9 Possible Molecular Pathogenesis of UVB-lnduced Contact Hypersensitivity to Haptens and the Risk of Developing Skin Cancer......Page 362
14.3 Xeroderma Pigmentosum......Page 363
14.3.1 XP and Rodent Complementation Groups......Page 366
14.3.2 The Problem of Partial Correction by Gene and Chromosome Transfer......Page 367
14.3.4 XP and Neurological Disorders......Page 368
14.3.7.1 Case Report 1: Xeroderma Pigmentosum Variant with Multisystem Involvement......Page 369
14.4.1 Epidemiology of Melanoma......Page 370
14.4.3.2 Junctional Nevus......Page 371
14.4.3.5 Solar Lentigo......Page 372
14.4.4 Wavelengths Effective in Induction of Malignant Melanoma: Action Spectrum for Melanoma Induction......Page 374
14.4.5 Risk Factors for the Development of Melanoma......Page 375
14.4.5.1.4 Common Melanocytic Nevi and Dysplastic Nevi......Page 376
14.4.6 Computer Applications in the Diagnosis and Management of Malignant Melanoma......Page 382
14.4.7.1 Pattern Analysis of Benign and Malignant Pigmented Skin Lesions......Page 383
14.4.7.2.4 Nodular Melanoma versus Angioma and Angiokeratoma......Page 384
14.5.1 Phototoxic Reactions......Page 385
14.5.1.2 Canine Solar Dermatitis......Page 386
14.5.2.1 Squamous Cell Carcinoma......Page 387
14.5.3.2 Hemangiomas and Hemangiosarcomas of Dogs......Page 388
14.5.3.3 Squamous Cell Carcinoma of Bengal Tiger and Christmas Cat......Page 389
Bibliography......Page 390
15.1 The Skin's Immune System: From Gold Impregnation to Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 392
15.2 Dendritic Cells......Page 393
15.2.3 Ultrastructure of the Langerhans Cell......Page 394
15.2.4 Cultures of Langerhans Cells......Page 395
15.3 Interaction Between APCS and T Cells......Page 396
15.4.1 Alteration of Contact Hypersensitivity Response......Page 397
15.4.2 Alteration of Ability to Activate T Lymphocytes in Vitro......Page 398
15.5.1 Some Analogies with the Actions of Chemical Carcinogens......Page 399
15.5.2 Pathway of UV Skin Carcinogenesis Formation......Page 402
Bibliography......Page 403
16.1.1.1 Tar and Pitch Skin......Page 406
16.1.1.1.2 Tar Melanosis and Melanodermatitis Toxica Hoffman Haberman......Page 407
16.1.2.1 Dermatitis Phototoxica......Page 408
16.1.2.2 Berloque Dermatitis......Page 409
16.1.3 Porphyrias......Page 410
16.1.3.1 Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria......Page 412
16.1.3.2 Erythropoietic Protoporphyria......Page 413
16.1.3.3 Acute Intermittent Porphyria......Page 414
16.1.3.6 Porphyria Cutanea Tarda......Page 416
16.1.3.8 Suggested Reading: Porphyria in History......Page 418
16.1.3.8.2 Mary Queen of Scots (1542-1587)......Page 420
16.1.4.1.1 Primary PS......Page 421
16.1.4.1.3 Hepatogenous Photosensitization......Page 422
16.1.4.2 Clinical Signs of PS in Animals......Page 426
16.2.1 Criteria for Phototoxicity versus Photoallergy......Page 427
16.2.2.1 Argyrosis and Chrysiasis......Page 428
16.2.6.1 Persistent Light Reactors......Page 429
16.2.6.2 Photopatch Testing in PACD......Page 430
16.2.6.3 Chronic Actinic Dermatitis......Page 431
16.2.7 Chronic Polymorphic Light Eruption......Page 432
16.2.8.1 Actinic Prurigo......Page 433
16.2.10.2 Cockayne Syndrome......Page 434
16.2.10.4 Rothmund and Thomson Syndromes......Page 435
16.3.1.1 Lupus Erythematosus......Page 436
16.3.1.1.1 Discoid Lupus Erythematosus......Page 437
16.3.1.1.2 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus......Page 438
16.3.1.1.2.1 Clinical Picture of SLE......Page 439
16.3.1.1.2.4 Diagnostic Criteria of Lupus......Page 440
16.3.1.1.4 Lupus Erythematosus in Mice......Page 441
16.3.3 Psoriasis and Seborrheic Skin Conditions......Page 442
16.3.4.2 Dyskeratosis Follicularis Darier......Page 443
16.3.4.3 Benign Familial Pemphigus of Hailey-Hailey......Page 444
16.3.4.5.1 Purpura Solaris......Page 445
16.3.4.6 Keratoacanthoma......Page 446
Clinical Manifestations......Page 447
Stage I......Page 448
Stage II......Page 450
Ophthalmic Rosacea......Page 451
Phymas......Page 452
Topical Treatment......Page 453
Bibliography......Page 454
17.1.1 Plasma Bilirubin Concentration as a Prognostic Index of Bilirubin Encephalopathy in the Neonate......Page 460
17.1.3 The Neurotoxic Form of Bilirubin......Page 461
17.1.4 Bilirubin Photoproducts......Page 462
17.1.5 Potential Hazards of Phototherapy......Page 463
17.1.6 Bronze Babies......Page 464
17.2.1 The Discovery of Vitamin D and Its Mechanism of Action......Page 465
17.2.2.2 Vitamin D3......Page 466
17.2.3 Chemistry of the Vitamin D Compounds......Page 467
17.2.4 Biosynthesis of Vitamin D in Skin......Page 468
17.2.5 Functional Metabolism of Vitamin D......Page 470
17.2.6 Photobiology of Vitamin D......Page 472
Bibliography......Page 473
18.1.1 Psoriasis: The Disease......Page 476
18.1.2 The Genetics of Psoriasis......Page 477
18.1.3 Mediators in the Pathogenesis of Psoriasis......Page 478
18.1.4 Characteristic Features of Psoriasis......Page 479
18.1.5.2 Action Spectrum for UVB Phototherapy of Psoriasis......Page 480
18.1.5.4 Action Spectra for Delayed Erythema: UVA and PUVA Photochemotherapy......Page 481
18.1.5.5 Heliotherapy of Psoriasis at the Dead Sea......Page 482
18.1.6.1.1 General Mechanisms......Page 483
18.1.6.2 Monofunctional Psoralens......Page 484
18.1.7.1.1 Oral PUVA Therapy......Page 485
18.1.7.3 PUVA-Induced Actinic Damage......Page 486
18.2.1 UVB Phototherapy of Mycosis Fungoides......Page 487
18.2.1.1 Mechanism of UVB Phototherapy......Page 488
18.2.2 Home Phototherapy of Mycosis Fungoides......Page 489
18.2.5 Photophoresis: Extracorporeal Photochemotherapy of CTCL with 8-Methoxypsoralen and UVA......Page 491
18.3.1 Characteristic Features......Page 492
18.3.2 Mechanisms of Pigment Loss in Vitiligo......Page 493
18.3.3 Immune Processes in Vitiligo......Page 494
18.3.4.1 Repigmentation by PUVA Therapy......Page 495
18.3.5 Khellin Photochemotherapy of Vitiligo......Page 496
Bibliography......Page 497
19.1.1 Principles......Page 500
19.1.2 Tumor Selectivity of PDT......Page 502
19.1.4.1 Cells in Vitro......Page 503
19.1.4.2.1 Vascular Damage in Phototherapy......Page 504
19.2 A New Approach to Treatment of Manlignancy Comes to Trial: A Selection of Early Case Reports With Hematoporphyrin Derivatives......Page 506
19.2.1.1 HPD PDT of Endobronchial Lung Cancer......Page 507
19.2.2 PDT of Bladder Cancer......Page 508
19.2.3 PDT in Extensive Basal Cell Carcinoma of tlie Dorsal Skin......Page 509
19.2.4 PDT of Brain Tumors......Page 510
19.2.6 Photodynamic Therapy of Diseases Other Than Tumors......Page 511
19.4.1 Long-Wavelength Absorbing Photosensitizers......Page 512
19.4.2 Photodynamic Therapy with Endogenous Protoporphyrin IX......Page 513
Bibliography......Page 516
Index......Page 520