Phoma: Diversity, Taxonomy, Bioactivities, and Nanotechnology: The genus Phoma

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: General, Identity and Taxonomy
	1: The Genus Phoma: What We Know and What We Need to Know?
		1.1	 Introduction
		1.2	 Phoma as a Rich Source of Secondary Metabolites with a Wide Range of Bioactivities
		1.3	 Phoma as Agents for Biocontrol of Diseases and Growth Promotion of Plants
		1.4	 Phoma as Plant Growth Promoter
		1.5	 Phoma Species as Novel Nanofactories
		1.6	 Conclusions
		References
	2: Taxonomical Evaluation of Phoma: History of Classification, Current Status and Future Directions
		2.1	 Introduction
		2.2	 History of Classification and Morphological Concept of Phoma
		2.3	 Molecular Phylogeny of Phoma: Towards a Reclassification of the Phoma Complex
		2.4	 Use of Metabolomics for Chemotaxonomy of Phoma and Allied Genera
		2.5	 Future Considerations and Conclusions
		References
Part II: Diversity, Diseases and Management
	3: Phoma on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
		3.1	 Introduction
		3.2	 Diversity of Pathogenic and Saprotrophic Phoma sensu lato on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
		3.3	 Diversity of Endophytic Phoma sensu lato Species Associated with Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Their Bioactivity
		3.4	 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	4: Diseases of Fruits, Tubers, and Seeds Caused by Phoma sensu lato Species Complex
		4.1	 Introduction
		4.2	 Diseases on Fruit, Tubers, and Seeds by Phoma spp.
		4.3	 Incidence and Losses
		4.4	 Quarantined Phoma Species and Diagnosis
		4.5	 Management Strategies
		4.6	 Conclusions
		References
	5: Overview of Phoma-Like Fungi on Important Legumes (Papilionaceous Plants)
		5.1	 Introduction
		5.2	 Alfalfa (Medicago L.)
			5.2.1	 Ascochyta medicaginicola
			5.2.2	 Leptosphaeria pratensis
			5.2.3	 Leptosphaeria weimeri
			5.2.4	 Leptosphaeria sclerotioides
			5.2.5	 Acrocalymma walkeri
			5.2.6	 Longiseptatispora meliloti
		5.3	 Beans (Phaseolus L.)
			5.3.1	 Boeremia exigua
			5.3.2	 Ascochyta boltshauseri
			5.3.3	 Boeremia diversispora
			5.3.4	 Setophoma terrestris
			5.3.5	 Mycosphaerella phaseolorum
		5.4	 Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
			5.4.1	 Mycosphaerella rabiei
			5.4.2	 Ectophoma multirostrata
			5.4.3	 Ascochyta medicaginicola
		5.5	 Clovers (Trifolium L.)
			5.5.1	 Ascochyta caulicola
			5.5.2	 Ascochyta trifolii
			5.5.3	 Ascochyta trifolii-alpestris
			5.5.4	 Leptosphaeria pratensis
			5.5.5	 Stagonospora recedens
		5.6	 Faba Bean, Broad Bean and Horse Bean (Vicia faba L.)
			5.6.1	 Didymella fabae
			5.6.2	 Ascochyta boltshauseri
		5.7	 Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik)
			5.7.1	 Didymella lentis
			5.7.2	 Ascochyta medicaginicola
		5.8	 Lupines (Lupinus L.)
			5.8.1	 Didymella pisi
			5.8.2	 Plenodomus lupini
			5.8.3	 Phoma schneiderae
			5.8.4	 Rare or Dubious Phoma-Like Fungi Described on Lupines
				Ascochyta lupinicola
				Phoma lupinicola
				Leptosphaeria pedicularis
		5.9	 Pea (Pisum L.)
			5.9.1	 Didymella pisi
			5.9.2	 Didymella pinodes
			5.9.3	 Didymella pinodella
			5.9.4	 Boeremia exigua
			5.9.5	 Phoma koolunga
			5.9.6	 Setophoma terrestris
			5.9.7	 Didymella glomerata
		5.10	 Vetch Species (Vicia L. spp.)
			5.10.1	 Septoria viciae
			5.10.2	 Ascochyta punctata
			5.10.3	 Ascochyta viciae-villosae
			5.10.4	 Ascochyta viciae-lathyroidis
			5.10.5	 Ascochyta viciae-pannonicae
			5.10.6	 Ascochyta viciae-pisiformis
			5.10.7	 Peyronellaea lethalis
		5.11	 Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr)
			5.11.1	 Didymella pinodella
			5.11.2	 Boeremia exigua
			5.11.3	 Setophoma terrestris
			5.11.4	 Ectophoma multirostrata
			5.11.5	 Epicoccum sorghinum
			5.11.6	 Didymella pomorum
		5.12	 Conclusions
		References
	6: Diseases of Vegetables Caused by Phoma spp.
		6.1	 Introduction
		6.2	 Phoma: The Largest Genus of Agricultural Significance
		6.3	 Diseases of Vegetables Caused by Phoma spp.
			6.3.1	 Phoma Disease of Alliaceae (Onion Family) Vegetables
				Pink Root
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
			6.3.2	 Diseases of Apiaceae Vegetables
				Phoma Crown and Root Rot
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
				Phoma Canker
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
			6.3.3	 Phoma Disease of Amaranthaceae Vegetables
				Blackleg/Phoma Leaf Spot
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
			6.3.4	 Phoma Disease of Brassicaceae (Mustard Family) Vegetables
				Blackleg/Phoma Leaf Spot/Stem Canker
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
			6.3.5	 Phoma Disease of Cucurbitaceae Vegetables
				Gummy Stem Blight and Black Rot
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
			6.3.6	 Phoma Disease of Fabaceae Vegetables
				Root and Foot Rot Complex
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agents
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
				Black Spot/Foot Rot Complex of Peas
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Ranges
					Causal Agents
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
				Ascochyta Blights
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
			6.3.7	 Phoma Disease of Asteraceae Vegetables
				Phoma Basal Rot of Lettuce
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
			6.3.8	 Phoma Diseases of Solanaceae Vegetables
				Phoma Blight/Phoma Rot
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
				Gangrene
					Introduction, Significance, Occurrence, and Host Range
					Causal Agent
					Symptoms and Diagnostic Features
					Disease Cycle
					Control
		6.4	 Conclusion
		References
	7: Phoma Diseases: Identification, Epidemiology, and Strategies for Management
		7.1	 Introduction
		7.2	 Identification of Phoma Diseases
		7.3	 Epidemiology of Phoma Diseases
			7.3.1	 Phoma spp. Life Cycle
		7.4	 Phoma spp. Growth and Favorable Conditions
		7.5	 Phytotoxins
		7.6	 Management of Phoma Diseases
			7.6.1	 Cultural Practices
		7.7	 Resistant Genotypes
		7.8	 Chemical Control
		7.9	 Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR)
		7.10	 Biological Control
		7.11	 Conclusion
		References
	8: Major Plant Diseases Caused by Phoma sensu lato Species and Their Integrated Management Strategies
		8.1	 Introduction
		8.2	 Leaf Diseases
			8.2.1	 Leaf Blight
			8.2.2	 Leaf Spot
			8.2.3	 Web Blotch
		8.3	 Stem Diseases
			8.3.1	 Blackleg
			8.3.2	 Black Stem
			8.3.3	 Stem Blight
		8.4	 Branch Diseases
			8.4.1	 Branch Blight
			8.4.2	 Shoot Necrosis
		8.5	 Vascular Diseases
			8.5.1	 Mal secco
		8.6	 Root and Crown Diseases
			8.6.1	 Brown Root Rot
			8.6.2	 Pink Root Rot
			8.6.3	 Root and Crown Rot
			8.6.4	 Root Canker
		8.7	 Fruit Diseases
			8.7.1	 Black Rot
			8.7.2	 Gangrene
			8.7.3	 Ripening
		8.8	 Seedling Diseases
			8.8.1	 Damping-Off
			8.8.2	 Premature Ripening
		8.9	 Conclusion
		References
	9: Phoma as an Infectious Pathogen in Medical Practice
		9.1	 Introduction
		9.2	 Spectrum of Diseases Caused by Phoma spp.
		9.3	 Diagnosis of Mycoses Caused by Species of the Genus Phoma
		9.4	 Treatment, Prevention, and Control of Mycoses Caused by Phoma spp.
		9.5	 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Secondary Metabolites and Bioactivities
	10: Fruitful Decade of Phoma Secondary Metabolites from 2011 to 2020: Chemistry, Chemical Diversity, and Biological Activities
		10.1	 Introduction
		10.2	 Secondary Metabolites of Phoma spp. and Their Biological Efficacy
			10.2.1	 α-Pyrone Derivatives
			10.2.2	 Isocoumarins
			10.2.3	 Anthraquinones and Xanthones
			10.2.4	 Thiodiketopiperazines
			10.2.5	 Cytochalasin Derivatives
			10.2.6	 Diphenyl Ether Derivatives
			10.2.7	 Furopyrans
			10.2.8	 Xyloketals and Chromones
			10.2.9	 Meroterpenoids and Diterpenoids
			10.2.10	 Alkaloids
			10.2.11	 Nonaromatic Polyketides
		10.3	 Miscellaneous
		10.4	 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	11: Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Endophytic Phoma spp.
		11.1	 Introduction
		11.2	 Endophytic Phoma
		11.3	 Secondary Metabolites of Endophytic Phoma
		11.4	 Bioanalytical Techniques to Determine Secondary Metabolites of Phoma Species
		11.5	 Bioactivity and Biotechnological Significance of Secondary Metabolites Obtained from Endophytic Phoma
			11.5.1	 Antimicrobial Activity
			11.5.2	 Anticancer Activity
			11.5.3	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
			11.5.4	 Anti-HIV Activity
			11.5.5	 Angiogenesis Inhibition
			11.5.6	 Plant Growth Promotion
			11.5.7	 Bio-herbicide
			11.5.8	 Biofuel Production
		11.6	 Conclusion
		References
	12: The Genus Phoma: A Review of Its Potential Bioactivities, Implications, and Prospects
		12.1	 Introduction
		12.2	 Phoma as Biological Control Agent for Weeds
		12.3	 Phoma as Biological Control Agent for Microorganisms
		12.4	 Phoma as Biological Control Agent for Viruses
		12.5	 Phoma as Biological Control Agent for Cancer Cells
		12.6	 Phoma as Producer of Anthraquinone Pigments
		12.7	 Phoma as Polysaccharide Producer
		12.8	 Commercial Scale of Phoma Products: Implications and Prospects
		12.9	 Conclusions
		References
	13: Bioherbicidal Activity of Phoma macrostoma
		13.1	 Introduction
		13.2	 Importance of Bioherbicides and the Hurdles Encountered in Their Development
		13.3	 Modes of Action
			13.3.1	 Plant Colonization
			13.3.2	 Macrocidins
		13.4	 Phylogenetics and Differentiation of Bioherbicidal and Non-bioherbicidal Isolates
		13.5	 Interactions with the Environment
			13.5.1	 Longevity and Residual Activity
			13.5.2	 Mobility, Moisture, Soil Type, and Fertility
			13.5.3	 Temperature
		13.6	 Host Range
			13.6.1	 Efficacy on Weeds
			13.6.2	 Tolerance in Non-weeds
		13.7	 Phoma macrostoma Bioherbicide Application
		13.8	 Commercialization of Phoma macrostoma as a Bioherbicide: Status, Barriers, and Potential
		13.9	 Conclusions
		References
	14: New Technologies for the Formulation of Secondary Metabolites Produced by Phoma sp. for Biological Control of Weeds
		14.1	 Introduction
		14.2	 Biological Control of Weeds
			14.2.1	 Phoma spp.: Its Role in Biological Control
			14.2.2	 Fermentation Processes
			14.2.3	 Emulsions: Concepts, Types, Application, and Formation
				Membrane Emulsification
		14.3	 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
		References
	15: Biological Management of Plant Diseases by Non-pathogenic Phoma spp.
		15.1	 Introduction
		15.2	 The Nature and Diversity of Non-pathogenic Phoma spp.
		15.3	 Non-pathogenic Phoma spp. as a Plant Growth Promoter
		15.4	 Non-pathogenic Phoma spp. as Biological Control Agents of Plant Diseases
			15.4.1	 Biological Control of Fungi by Phoma spp.
			15.4.2	 Biological Control of Bacteria by Phoma spp.
			15.4.3	 Biological Control of Viruses by Phoma spp.
			15.4.4	 Biological Control of Protists by Phoma spp.
			15.4.5	 Biological Control of Peronosporomycetes by Phoma spp.
		15.5	 Interaction of Phoma spp. and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Disease Protection
		15.6	 Factors Affecting the Biocontrol Potential of Phoma spp.
		15.7	 Mechanisms of Disease Suppression
			15.7.1	 Direct Protective Activity Against Plant Diseases by Phoma spp.
				Antibiosis
				Hyperparasitisms/Mycoparasitism
				Competitive Root Colonization
			15.7.2	 Indirect Protective Activity Against Plant Diseases by Phoma spp.
				Hormonal Interplay
				Induced Resistance
		15.8	 Activated Signalling and Defence Genes in Phoma spp.-Induced Resistance
		15.9	 Bioactive Compounds Produced by Biocontrol Agent Phoma spp.
		15.10	 Conclusions
		References
	16: Plant Growth-Promoting Phoma spp.
		16.1	 Introduction
		16.2	 Existence of Rhizospheric Fungi in the Soil
		16.3	 Production of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
		16.4	 Production of Phytohormones
		16.5	 Suppression of Plant Pathogens
		16.6	 Colonization of Plant Roots with Phoma sp.
		16.7	 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Nanotechnology and Fossil Records of Phoma
	17: Potential Role of Phoma spp. for Mycogenic Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
		17.1	 Introduction
		17.2	 Phoma as a Ubiquitous Genus
		17.3	 Isolation, Procurement, and Maintenance of Phoma spp.
		17.4	 Mycosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
		17.5	 Silver Nanoparticle Synthesis Using Phoma spp.
		17.6	 Mechanistic Approach
		17.7	 Future Perspectives
		17.8	 Conclusion
		References
	18: In Situ Occurrence of Phomites Fritel in the Phyllosphere of Ancient Siwalik Forests of Eastern Himalaya During the Mio-Pleistocene
		18.1	 Introduction
		18.2	 Geological Settings of the Eastern Himalaya
		18.3	 Systematics of Phoma
		18.4	 Earlier Records of Phoma or Phoma-Like fossils
		18.5	 Phomites from Siwalik Sediments of Eastern Himalaya
		18.6	 Palaeoecological Significance
		18.7	 Host-Phomites Interaction in the Siwalik Forest
		References
Index