Philosophy: The Power Of Ideas

Cover......Page 1
Title......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 20
Chapter 1 Powerful Ideas......Page 26
Department of Explosives......Page 28
What Is Philosophy?......Page 29
Philosophical Questions......Page 30
Misconceptions about Philosophy......Page 32
Argument......Page 34
Thought Experiments......Page 35
Fallacies......Page 36
The Divisions of Philosophy......Page 38
Key Terms and Concepts......Page 40
Suggested Further Readings......Page 41
PART ONE: METAPHYSICS AND EPISTEMOLOGY: EXISTENCE AND KNOWLEDGE......Page 42
Chapter 2 The Pre-Socratics......Page 43
The Milesians......Page 45
Pythagoras......Page 47
Heraclitus and Parmenides......Page 48
Empedocles and Anaxagoras......Page 51
The Atomists......Page 53
Questions for Discussion and Review......Page 55
Suggested Further Readings......Page 56
Socrates......Page 57
Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Forms......Page 60
Plato's Theory of Knowledge......Page 63
Plato's Theory of Love and Becoming......Page 66
SELECTION 3.1 Plato: Apology......Page 68
SELECTION 3.2 Plato: Republic......Page 71
SELECTION 3.3 Plato: Meno......Page 78
Key Terms and Concepts......Page 83
Suggested Further Readings......Page 84
Chapter 4 Aristotle......Page 85
What Is It to Be?......Page 86
Essence and Existence......Page 88
Ten Basic Categories......Page 89
Aristotle and the Theory of Forms......Page 90
Logic......Page 92
SELECTION 4.1 Aristotle: Metaphysics......Page 93
Suggested Further Readings......Page 94
Chapter 5 Philosophers of the Hellenistic and Christian Eras......Page 95
The Rise of Christianity......Page 97
St. Augustine......Page 99
Augustine and Skepticism......Page 101
Hypatia......Page 104
The Middle Ages and Aquinas......Page 106
SELECTION 5.1 St. Augustine: Confessions......Page 112
SELECTION 5.2 St. Thomas Aquinas: Summa Theologica: Questions on God......Page 114
Suggested Further Readings......Page 116
Chapter 6 The Rise of Modern Metaphysics and Epistemology......Page 117
Descartes and Dualism......Page 121
Skepticism as the Key to Certainty......Page 122
The "Clear and Distinct" Litmus Test......Page 123
Perception......Page 127
The Metaphysics of Anne Conway......Page 128
Spinoza......Page 130
Leibniz......Page 132
John Locke and Representative Realism......Page 134
George Berkeley and Idealism......Page 135
Material Things as Clusters of Ideas......Page 137
Berkeley and Atheism......Page 138
SELECTION 6.1 René Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy......Page 141
SELECTION 6.2 Benedictus de Spinoza: Ethics......Page 143
SELECTION 6.3 George Berkeley: Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge......Page 145
Key Terms and Concepts......Page 147
Suggested Further Readings......Page 148
Chapter 7 The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries......Page 149
The Quarter Experiment......Page 150
Hume on the Self......Page 152
Hume on Cause and Effect......Page 153
The Ordering Principles of the Mind......Page 155
Things-in-Themselves......Page 157
The Nineteenth Century......Page 158
The Main Themes of Hegel......Page 160
Arthur Schopenhauer......Page 161
SELECTION 7.1 David Hume: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding......Page 163
SELECTION 7.2 Immanuel Kant: Critique of Pure Reason......Page 164
SELECTION 7.3 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: The Philosophy of History......Page 165
SELECTION 7.4 Arthur Schopenhauer: The World as Will and Representation......Page 166
Suggested Further Readings......Page 169
Brief Historical Overview of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries......Page 170
Existentialism......Page 172
Psychoanalysis......Page 177
Two Existentialists......Page 178
Albert Camus......Page 181
Jean-Paul Sartre......Page 184
Sartre and Kant on Ethics......Page 187
Phenomenology......Page 188
Edmund Husserl......Page 190
Martin Heidegger......Page 191
Poetry......Page 193
Emmanuel Levinas......Page 194
An Era of Suspicion......Page 195
Jorgen Habermas......Page 196
Michel Foucault......Page 198
Structuralism versus Deconstruction......Page 199
Jacques Derrida......Page 200
Gilles Deleuze......Page 202
SELECTION 8.1 Jean-Paul Sartre: Existentialism and Humanism......Page 204
SELECTION 8.2 Albert Camus: The Myth of Sisyphus......Page 207
SELECTION 8.3 Giovanna Borradori: A Dialogue with Jorgen Habermas: Fundamentalism and Terror......Page 208
SELECTION 8.4 Giovanna Borradori: A Dialogue with Jacques Derrida: 9/11 and Global Terrorism......Page 210
Key Terms and Concepts......Page 213
Suggested Further Readings......Page 214
Chapter 9 The Pragmatic and Analytic Traditions......Page 215
Pragmatism......Page 216
Richard Rorty......Page 218
What Analysis Is......Page 219
A Brief Overview of Analytic Philosophy......Page 220
Language and Science......Page 224
Experience, Language, and the World......Page 227
Antirepresentationalism......Page 232
Wittgenstein's Turnaround......Page 234
Quine, Davidson, and Kripke......Page 235
Willard Van Orman Quine......Page 236
Saul Kripke......Page 237
Ontology......Page 239
Philosophical Questions in Quantum Mechanics......Page 241
SELECTION 9.1 A. J. Ayer: The Elimination of Metaphysics......Page 247
SELECTION 9.2 Saul Kripke: Identity and Necessity......Page 249
SELECTION 9.3 Donald Davidson: The Problem of Objectivity......Page 251
SELECTION 9.4 Paul A. Boghossian: What Is Social Construction?......Page 253
Key Terms and Concepts......Page 256
Suggested Further Readings......Page 257
PART TWO: MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY......Page 258
Chapter 10 Moral Philosophy......Page 259
Skepticism, Relativism, and Subjectivism......Page 260
Egoism......Page 261
Hedonism......Page 262
The Five Main Ethical Frameworks......Page 263
Plato......Page 264
Aesara, the Lucanian......Page 268
Aristotle......Page 269
Epicureanism and Stoicism......Page 271
The Stoics......Page 272
St. Augustine......Page 275
St. Hildegard of Bingen......Page 277
Heloise and Abelard......Page 279
St. Thomas Aquinas......Page 281
Hobbes......Page 282
Value Judgments Are Based on Emotion, Not Reason......Page 284
Benevolence......Page 285
Kant......Page 286
The Supreme Principle of Morality......Page 287
Why You Should Do What You Should Do......Page 288
The Utilitarians......Page 289
Bentham......Page 290
Mill......Page 291
Friedrich Nietzsche......Page 293
SELECTION 10.1 Plato: Gorgias......Page 294
SELECTION 10.2 Aristotle: The Nicomachean Ethics......Page 297
SELECTION 10.3 Epicurus: Epicurus to Menoeceus......Page 299
SELECTION 10.4 Epictetus: The Encheiridion......Page 300
SELECTION 10.5 Immanuel Kant: Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals......Page 302
SELECTION 10.6 John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism......Page 304
SELECTION 10.7 Friedrich Nietzsche: Beyond Good and Evil......Page 306
Questions for Discussion and Review......Page 310
Suggested Further Readings......Page 311
Chapter 11 Political Philosophy......Page 312
Plato......Page 313
Aristotle......Page 314
Natural Law Theory and Contractarian Theory......Page 315
Augustine and Aquinas......Page 316
Hobbes......Page 317
John Locke......Page 321
Locke and the Right to Property......Page 324
Separation of Power......Page 325
Jean-Jacques Rousseau......Page 326
Natural Law and Rights in the Declaration of Independence......Page 329
Natural Law and Rights in the U.S. Constitution......Page 330
The Right to Privacy......Page 331
Utilitarianism and Natural Rights......Page 332
John Stuart Mill......Page 333
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel......Page 336
Marxism......Page 337
The Means of Production versus Productive Relations......Page 338
Capitalism and Its Consequences......Page 339
Alienation......Page 341
Marxism and Communism......Page 342
Anarchism......Page 343
SELECTION 11.1 Plato: Crito......Page 344
SELECTION 11.2 Plato: Republic......Page 347
SELECTION 11.3 Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan......Page 351
SELECTION 11.4 John Stuart Mill: On Liberty......Page 354
SELECTION 11.5 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Communist Manifesto......Page 355
Questions for Discussion and Review......Page 357
Suggested Further Readings......Page 358
G. E. Moore......Page 359
Normative Ethics and Metaethics......Page 361
Emotivism and Beyond......Page 362
John Rawls, a Contemporary Liberal......Page 365
The Fundamental Requirements of the Just Society......Page 366
The Two Principles of Social Justice......Page 367
Why Should I Accept Rawls's Provisions?......Page 368
A Minimal State Is Justified......Page 370
Only the "Night-Watchman" State Does Not Violate Rights......Page 371
Communitarian Responses to Rawls......Page 372
Alasdair MacIntyre and Virtue Ethics......Page 376
Martha Nussbaum......Page 377
Herbert Marcuse, A Recent Marxist......Page 379
The Objectivism of Ayn Rand......Page 382
"Isms"......Page 387
SELECTION 12.1 James Rachels: Killing and Starving to Death......Page 388
SELECTION 12.2 John Rawls: A Theory of Justice......Page 391
SELECTION 12.3 Robert Nozick: Anarchy, State, and Utopia......Page 392
SELECTION 12.4 Martha Nussbaum: Frontiers of Justice......Page 394
Key Terms and Concepts......Page 395
Suggested Further Readings......Page 396
PART THREE: PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION: REASON AND FAITH......Page 398
Chapter 13 Philosophy and Belief in God......Page 399
Two Christian Greats......Page 400
The Ontological Argument......Page 401
Gaunilo's Objection......Page 402
The Second Way......Page 403
The Third Way......Page 404
The Fourth and Fifth Ways......Page 405
Mysticism......Page 407
Descartes......Page 410
Descartes' Third Proof......Page 411
Leibniz and the Principle of Sufficient Reason......Page 413
Leibniz and the Problem of Evil......Page 414
Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Perspectives......Page 415
Hume and the Argument from Design......Page 416
A Verbal Dispute?......Page 418
Kant......Page 419
What Is Wrong with the Ontological Proof?......Page 420
Belief in God Rationally Justified......Page 421
Kierkegaard......Page 422
Nietzsche......Page 423
James......Page 424
God and Logical Positivism......Page 427
Mary Daly: The Unfolding of God......Page 428
Intelligent Design or Evolution?......Page 431
God, the Fine-Tuner......Page 433
SELECTION 13.1 St. Anselm: Proslogion......Page 434
SELECTION 13.2 St. Thomas Aquinas: Summa Theologica......Page 435
SELECTION 13.3 G.W. Leibniz: Monadology......Page 436
SELECTION 13.4 Friedrich Nietzsche: The Gay Science......Page 437
SELECTION 13.5 Antony Flew: Theology and Falsification......Page 438
SELECTION 13.6 Mary Daly: After the Death of God the Father......Page 440
SELECTION 13.7 Richard Dawkins: The God Delusion......Page 441
Key Terms and Concepts......Page 444
Suggested Further Readings......Page 445
PART FOUR: OTHER VOICES......Page 446
Chapter 14 Feminist Philosophy......Page 447
The First Wave......Page 448
The Second Wave......Page 449
The Third Wave......Page 453
Feminist Moral Theory......Page 455
Sexism and Language......Page 458
Feminist Epistemology......Page 460
French Feminist Philosophy and Psychoanalytical Theory......Page 461
Luce Irigaray......Page 464
Julia Kristeva......Page 465
Héléne Cixous......Page 467
"Laugh of the Medusa"......Page 470
Judith Butler: Gender, Sex, and Performativity......Page 471
SELECTION 14.2 Simone de Beauvoir: The Second Sex......Page 475
SELECTION 14.3 Nancy Chodorow: The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender......Page 477
SELECTION 14.4 Carol Gilligan: Woman's Place in Man's Life Cycle......Page 480
SELECTION 14.5 Sandra Harding: Conclusion: Epistemological Questions......Page 481
SELECTION 14.6 Hélène Cixous: The Laugh of the Medusa......Page 482
SELECTION 14.7 Sherryl Kleinman: Goodbye, You Guys......Page 486
Suggested Further Readings......Page 487
Chapter 15 Eastern Influences......Page 488
Hinduism......Page 489
Buddha......Page 493
Taoism......Page 497
Lao Tzu......Page 498
Sun Tzu......Page 503
Chuang Tzu......Page 504
Confucius......Page 507
Mencius......Page 512
Hsün Tzu......Page 515
Hui Neng......Page 516
Buddhism in Japan......Page 519
Murasaki Shikibu......Page 520
Dogen Kigen......Page 523
The Philosophy of the Samurai (c. 1100–1900)......Page 525
The Influence of Confucius......Page 530
The Influence of Zen Buddhism......Page 531
Philosophy East and West......Page 533
SELECTION 15.1 Confucius: Analects......Page 535
SELECTION 15.2 Buddha: The Eightfold Noble Path......Page 537
Key Terms and Concepts......Page 540
Suggested Further Readings......Page 541
Chapter 16 Postcolonial Thought......Page 542
Historical Background......Page 543
Africa......Page 545
Person......Page 546
The Nature of Philosophy......Page 547
The Good Life......Page 548
The Americas......Page 549
Social Justice......Page 552
Feminism......Page 553
Afrocentrism......Page 554
Latin American Thought......Page 555
Metaphysics of the Human......Page 556
South Asia......Page 557
Satyagraha......Page 559
Metaphysics......Page 560
SELECTION 16.1 Léopold Sédar Senghor: On African Socialism......Page 561
SELECTION 16.2 Martin Luther King Jr.: The Sword That Heals......Page 562
SELECTION 16.3 Carlos Astrada: Existentialism and the Crisis of Philosophy......Page 563
SELECTION 16.4 Francisco Miró Quesada: Man without Theory......Page 565
SELECTION 16.5 Sonia Saldívar-Hull: Feminism on the Border: From Gender Politics to Geopolitics......Page 567
SELECTION 16.6 Mohandas K. Gandhi: Satyagraha......Page 568
SELECTION 16.7 Rabindranath Tagore: Towards Universal Man......Page 570
Suggested Further Readings......Page 571
Free Will......Page 572
Psychological Determinism......Page 573
Neuroscientific Determinism......Page 574
Causal Determinism......Page 576
Dualism......Page 577
Behaviorism......Page 578
Identity Theory......Page 579
Functionalism......Page 581
Zombies......Page 582
The Ethics of Generosity: The Problem of The Gift......Page 583
What Is Art? and Related Problems in Aesthetics......Page 591
What Is Art?......Page 592
A Paradox of Fiction......Page 594
The Puzzle of Musical Expression......Page 596
Envoi......Page 597
SELECTION 17.1 J. J. C. Smart: Sensations and Brain Processes......Page 598
SELECTION 17.2 Sam Harris: Free Will......Page 600
Questions for Discussion and Review......Page 602
Suggested Further Readings......Page 603
Credits......Page 604
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