Phillips' Science of Dental Materials

Cover
Half Title Page
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Front Cover
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Phillips’ Science of Dental Materials
1. Overview of Dental Materials
	Outline
	Key Terms
	The Oral Cavity
		What Is Force?
		Mastication and Clenching Forces
	Structure of Teeth
		Enamel
		Dentin
		Dentin-Enamel Junction
		Cementum
		Pulp
	Potential Issues and Treatments Associated With Teeth
		Biological Issue
		Genetic Issue
		Mechanical issue
	Categories of Dental Materials
		Preventive Materials
		Restorative Materials
			Direct Restorative Materials
			Indirect Restorative Materials
			Temporary and Provisional Restorative Materials
		Auxiliary Materials
	Challenges of Dental Materials in  the Oral Cavity
		Retention of Restorations
		Restoration Longevity in Terms of Mechanical Integrity
		Esthetic Appearance
		Safety of Dental Materials
		Capability of Initiating Tissue Repair or Regeneration
	The Future Need for Dental Biomaterials
	Organization of the Book
	Acknowledgment
	Selected Readings
2. Structure of Matter, General Classes of Material and Principles of Adhesion
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Interaction Between Two Atoms
		Bond Distance
		Bond Energy
		Influence of Interatomic Bond
	Types of Bonding
		Primary Bonds
			Ionic Bonds
			Covalent Bonds
			Metallic Bonds
			Combination of Primary Bonds
		Secondary Bonds
			Van der Waals Forces
			Hydrogen Bond
	Atomic Arrangement
		Crystalline Structure
		Noncrystalline Structure
		Diffusion
	Metals
		Solidification and Microstructure of Metals
			Nucleus Formation
			Liquid-to-Solid Transformation of Cast Metals
			Grain Refinement and Grain Size
		Solid Solutions
			Solutes and Solvents
			Conditions for Solid Solubility
			Mechanical Properties of Solid Solutions
		Equilibrium-Phase Diagrams
			Interpretation of a Solid-Solution Phase Diagram
			Coring and Homogenization Heat Treatment
		Eutectic Alloys
			Phase Changes of Eutectic Alloys
			Physical Properties and Application of Eutectic Alloys
		Peritectic Alloys
		Solid-State Reactions in High-Noble and Noble Alloy Systems
			Gold-Copper System
			Other Noble Alloys for Dental Applications
			Palladium-Based Alloys
			Multicomponent Dental Alloy Systems
	Ceramics
		Structure of Ceramics
		Mechanical Properties of Ceramics
	Polymers
		Fundamental Nature of Polymers
			Molecular Weight
			Chain Branching and Crosslinking
			Copolymer Structures
			Molecular Organization
		Physical and Mechanical Properties of Polymers
			Mechanical Properties—Deformation and Recovery
			Rheometric Properties
			Solvation and Dissolution Properties
			Thermal Properties
		Chemistry of Polymerization
			Addition Polymerization (Chain-Growth Polymerization)
			Stages in Addition Polymerization of Vinyl Monomers
				Induction
				Propagation
				Termination
				Chain Transfer
			Inhibition of Addition Polymerization
			Step-Growth Polymerization (Condensation Polymerization)
				Copolymerization
		Composite Materials
			Microstructure of Composite
			Benefit of Composite Structure
			Composite Materials Used in Dentistry
			Factors Influencing Properties of Composites
		Adhesion and Bonding
			Surface, Surface Energy, and Surface Tension
			Wetting
			Contact Angle of Wetting
			Mechanical Interlocking
		Bonding to Tooth Structure
		Selected Readings
		Selected Reading (Web Version)
			Structure of Matter
			Metal
			Ceramic
			Polymer
			Composite
			Principle of Adhesion
3. Physical and Chemical Properties of Solids
	Outline
	Key Terms
		RHEOLOGY
		STRUCTURAL RELAXATION
		COLOR AND OPTICAL EFFECTS
		THERMAL PROPERTIES
		ELECTROCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
		MAGNETIC MATERIALS
	Rheology
	Structural Relaxation
		Stress Relaxation
		Creep and Flow
		Color and Optical Effects
			Nature of Light and the Role of Human Vision
			The Nature of the Object Under View
			Three Dimensions of Color
			Color Matching
			The Effect of the Observer
			The Effect of the Light Source
			Fluorescence
			Radiopacity
	Thermal Properties
		Thermal Conductivity
		Thermal Diffusivity
		Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
	Electrochemical Properties
		Tarnish and Corrosion
		Classifications of Corrosion
		Electrochemical Mechanism of Corrosion
			Dissimilar Metals
			Heterogeneous Surface Composition
			Stress Corrosion
				Concentration Cell Corrosion
		Protection Against Corrosion
		Clinical Significance of Galvanic Currents
	Magnetic Materials
	Selected Readings
4. Mechanical Properties of Solids
	Outline
	Key Terms
	What Are Mechanical Properties?
		Stress
			Tensile Stress
			Compressive Stress
			Shear Stress
			Combined Stresses
		Strain
		Strength
	Stress-Strain Properties
		Proportional Limit, Elastic Limit, and Yield Strength (Proof Stress)
		Elastic Modulus (Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity)
		Ultimate Strength and True Strength
		Flexibility and Ductility
		Resilience and Toughness
		Poisson’s Ratio
	Other Strength Test Methods
		Diametral Tensile Strength
		Flexural Strength
			Uniaxial Flexural Strength
			Biaxial Flexural Strength
		Impact Strength
	Fracture of Restorations
		Stress Concentration
		Fracture Toughness
		Fatigue Strength
		Weibull Modulus
	Properties of Surface Interactions
		Hardness
		Friction and Wear (Tribology)
			Friction
				Mechanism of Friction
				Laws of Sliding Friction
			Wear
				Types of Wear
				Factors Influencing Abrasive Wear
				Improvement of Wear Resistance
	Strength of Tooth Structure
	Selection of Dental Materials
	Acknowledgment
	Selected Readings
5. Resin-Based Composites
	Outline
	Key Terms
	History of Composites
	Composition and Function
		Matrix
		Filler
			Function of Fillers
			Characteristics of Fillers
			Types of Fillers
				Ormocer
				POSS
		Coupling Agent
		Inhibitors
		Optical Modifiers
	Classification of Dental Composites
		Classification by Curing Method
			Chemical-Activated (Self-Cured) Resins
			Light-Activated (Light-Cured) Resins
				Curing Lamps
				Depth of Cure and Exposure Time
				Safety Precautions for Using Curing Lamps
			Dual-Cured Resins
		Classification by Filler Particle Size
			Traditional/Large-Particle/Macrofill Composites
			Homogeneous Microfill Composites
			Microfilled (Heterogeneous Microfill) Composites
			Nanofill Composites/Nanocomposites
			Hybrid (Large-Particle, Midfiller, Minifiller, Nanohybrid) Composites
		Classification of Composites by Manipulation Characteristics
		Flowable/Injectable Composites
		Condensable/Packable Composites
		Bulk-Fill Composites
		Classification of Composites by Clinical Use
		Classification of Composites by Unique Properties
			Low-Shrinkage Composites
				Maximizing Filler Loading
				Low-Shrinkage Monomers
			Self-Adhesive Flowable Composites
			Bioactive Composites
	Properties of Resin-Based Composites
		Degree of Conversion
		Matrix Constraint
		Strengthening Mechanism
		Cure Shrinkage and Managing Shrinkage Stress
			Incremental Buildup and Cavity Configuration
			Soft-Start, Ramped Curing, and Delayed Curing
		Wear
		Longevity of Composites
		Placement Time of Composites
		Biocompatibility of Composites
	Finishing and Polishing of Composites
		Environment
		Elapsed Time Between Curing of the Composite and Finishing and Polishing
		Types of Materials and Instruments
		Surface Coating and Sealing
	Repair of Composites
	Composite-Based Indirect Restorations
		Composite Resin Veneers
		Indirect Posterior Composites
	Selection Criteria for Posterior Composites
	Photocuring Training, Evaluation, and Process Management
	Acknowledgment
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web version)
		Publications and Patents
6. Bonding and Bonding Agents
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Historical Background
	Mechanisms of Adhesion
	Acid-Etch Technique
		Enamel Etching
		Dentin Etching
	Process and Procedural Factors
		Etching Time
		Rinsing and Drying Stage
		Cleanness of the Bonding Surfaces
		Other Factors
	Dentin-Bonding Agents
		Composition of Dentin-Bonding Agents
			Etchants
			Primers
			Solvents
			Adhesives
			Initiators
			Filler Particles
			Other Ingredients
		Properties of Bonding Agents
			Measurement of Bond Strength
			Measurement of Microleakage
			Aging Effects and Degradation of the Hybrid Layer
		Classifications by Clinical Steps
			Etch-and-Rinse Adhesives
				Three Step (Fourth Generation)
				Two Step (Fifth Generation)
			Self-Etch Adhesives
				Two Step (Sixth Generation)
				One Step (Seventh Generation)
	Luting Agents
	Applications in Orthodontic, Endodontic, and Preventive Dentistry
		Bonding Resins for Orthodontic Brackets
		Endodontic Sealers
		Amalgam Bonding
		Pit and Fissure Sealants
	Acknowledgment
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
		Useful Websites
		Literature Citations
7. Dental Cements
	Outline
	Key Terms
	History of Dental Cements
	Indications for Dental Cements
	Performance Criteria for Dental Cements
	Solubility and Disintegration of Cements
	Fluoride-Releasing Materials
		Factors Affecting Fluoride Release in Vitro
		Clinical Significance
		Fluoride Recharge
	Pulp Protection
		Pulp-Capping Materials
			Calcium Hydroxide
			Tri-/Dicalcium Silicate
			Formocresol and Ferric Sulfate
		Cavity Varnishes and Liners
		Fluoridated Varnishes
		Cement Bases
	Cements for Luting
		Zinc Oxide–Based Cements
			Zinc Phosphate Cement
			Zinc Polycarboxylate Cement
			Zinc Oxide Eugenol and Noneugenol Cements
		Glass-Ionomer Cement
			Chemistry and Setting
			Clinical Manipulation
			Metal-Reinforced Glass-Ionomer Cement
			High-Viscosity Glass-Ionomer Cement
		Resin Cements
			Composition and Setting
			Clinical Manipulation and Evaluation
			Metallic Prostheses
			Polymeric Prostheses
			Ceramic Prostheses
			Orthodontic Brackets
		Combination Cements
			Resin-Modified Glass-Ionomer Cement
			Compomer
			Calcium Aluminate Glass-Ionomer Cement
	Endodontic Sealers
	Tri-/Dicalcium Silicate Cement
	Calcium Phosphate Cements
	Summary
	Acknowledgment
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
8. Dental Amalgams
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Amalgam Alloy
		Composition
			The Silver-Tin System
			Low-Copper Alloys
			High-Copper Alloys
			Gallium-Based Alloys
		Powder Configuration
			Lathe-Cut Powder
			Atomized Powder
			Particle Size
			Lathe-Cut Powder Versus Spherical Powder
		Amalgamation
			Low-Copper Alloys
			High-Copper Alloys
				Admixed Alloys
				Single-Composition Alloys
	Clinical Manipulation of Amalgam for Restorations
		Mercury/Alloy Ratio
		Mechanical Trituration
			Triturators
			Consistency of the Mix
		Condensation
			Condensation Procedure
			Condensation Pressure
		Carving and Finishing
	Properties of Amalgams
		Dimensional Stability
			Mechanism of Dimensional Change During Setting
			Effect of Moisture Contamination
		Strength
			Effect of Trituration
			Effect of Mercury Content
			Effect of Condensation
			Effect of Porosity
			Effect of Amalgam Hardening Rate
		Creep
		Tarnish and Corrosion Resistance
	Clinical Performance of Amalgam Restorations
		Clinical Significance of Dimensional Change
		Marginal Breakdown
		Improper Cavity Preparation or Finishing
		Survival of Amalgam Restorations
		Repaired Amalgam Restorations
	Safety of Amalgam Restorations
		Allergy
		Toxicity
		Mercury Hygiene in Dental Offices
		Regulation of Amalgam Use by Governments
	Acknowledgments
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
9. Metals
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Desirable Properties of Dental Alloys
	Functional Mechanical Properties of Alloys
		Elastic Modulus
		Yield Strength (Proof Stress)
		Ductility (Percent Elongation)
		Hardness
		Fatigue Resistance
	Classification of Dental Casting Alloys
		Alloy Classification by Noble Metal Content
		Alloy Classification by Mechanical Properties
		Alloy Classification by Principal Elements
		Alloy Classification by Dental Applications
	Alloys for All-Metal Prostheses
		High-Noble and Noble Alloys
			Gold-Based Alloys
			Silver-Palladium Alloys
		Predominantly Base-Metal Alloys
		Titanium and Titanium Alloys
			Commercially Pure Titanium
			Titanium Alloys
			Manipulation of Titanium Alloys
	Alloys for Metal-Ceramic Prostheses
		Requirements of Alloys for Metal-Ceramic Applications
			Porcelain Bonding to Metals
			Solidus Temperature
			Thermal Compatibility of Metal-Ceramic Systems
		High-Noble and Noble Alloys
			Gold-Platinum-Palladium Alloys
			Gold-Palladium-Silver Alloys
			Gold-Palladium Alloys
			Palladium-Gold Alloys
			Palladium-Gold-Silver Alloys
			Palladium-Silver Alloys
			Palladium-Copper-Gallium Alloys
			Palladium-Gallium Alloys
		Predominantly Base-Metal Alloys
			Manipulation of Base-Metal Alloys
			Mechanical Properties
		Titanium-Based Alloys
	Alloys for Removable Partial Dentures
		Predominantly Base-Metal Alloys
		Titanium-Based Alloys
	Alternative Technologies for Fabricating Prostheses
		Sintering of Burnished Foil
		CAD-CAM Processing
		Copy Milling
		Electroforming
		Three-Dimensional Printing
	Joining of Dental Alloys
		Soldering Flux
		Filler Metal for Soldering
			Flow Temperature
			Wetting
			Fluidity
		Heat Sources for Soldering
		Technique Considerations for Soldering
			Gap Width
			Flame
			Temperature and Time
		Laser Welding of Commercially Pure Titanium
	Wrought Alloys and Plastic Deformation of Metals
		Theoretical and Observed Shear Strengths of Metals
		Crystal Imperfections
			Point Defects
			Line Defects (Dislocations)
		Dislocation Movement in Polycrystalline Alloys
		Effects of Strengthening Metals
		Plastic Deformation Without Dislocation Movement
	Effects of Annealing Wrought Alloys
		Recovery
		Recrystallization
		Grain Growth
	Types of Wrought Alloys
		Stainless Steel Alloys
			Carbon Steel
			Types of Stainless Steels
			Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steel
			Mechanical Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel
			Soldering and Welding Stainless Steel
				Technical Considerations for Soldering
				Welding
		Cobalt-Chromium-Nickel Alloys
		Nickel-Titanium Alloys
			Mechanical Properties
			Superelasticity and Shape Memory in Nickel-Titanium Orthodontic Wires
			Nickel-Titanium Endodontic Instruments
		Beta-Titanium Alloys
			Mechanical Properties of Beta-Titanium Wires
			Welding
			Corrosion Resistance
			Surface Property
		Additional Wrought Alloys
	Acknowledgments
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
		Metal Joining
		Wrought Alloys
10. Ceramic-Based Materials
	Outline
	Key Terms
	General Properties of Ceramic Materials
		Chemical Properties
		Mechanical Properties
			Resistance to Tensile Fracture
			Abrasiveness to Enamel
		Biological Properties
		Physical Properties
			Color-Matching Ability and Aesthetic Qualities
			Conductivity
	History of Dental Ceramics
	Metal-Ceramic Systems
		Ceramic Types
			Feldspathic Porcelains
			Ultralow-Fusing Ceramics for Metal-Ceramic Prostheses
			Glass Modifiers
			Glazes and Stain Ceramics
		Requirements of Metal Component
		Bonding Porcelain to Metal
		Fabrication of Metal-Ceramic Prostheses
			Manual Porcelain Condensation
			Firing Procedure
			Cooling
	Ceramic-Ceramic or All-Ceramic Systems
		Glass-Ceramics
		Hot-Isostatically Pressed Glass-Ceramics
		Fluorapatite Glass-Ceramic
		Zirconia-Based Ceramics
			Stabilized Zirconia
			Transformation Toughening
			Monolithic Zirconia
			Fracture Strength of Zirconia
			Hydrothermal Degradation
		Glass-Infiltrated Core Ceramics
		Alumina Core Ceramic
		Bonding of Resin to Dental Ceramics
	CAD-CAM Processing of Ceramics
	Methods for Strengthening Ceramic Restorations
		Minimizing the Effect of Stress Concentrations
		Maximize Development of Residual Compressive Stresses
			Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Mismatch
			Ion Exchange
			Thermal Tempering
		Interruption of Crack Propagation
			Crystalline Particle Strengthening
			Transformation Toughening
			Summary
		Effect of Design on Fracture Susceptibility of Metal-Ceramic and All-Ceramic Restorations
	Principles for Selection of Dental Ceramics
	IdentCeram Certificates for Identification of Ceramic Products
	Acknowledgment
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
11. Prosthetic Polymers and Resins
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Acrylic Resins
	General Technique of Denture Base Fabrication
	Heat-Activated Denture Base Resins
		Compression Molding Technique
			Preparation of the Mold
			Selection and Application of a Separating Medium
		Preparation of Heat-Activated Denture Resin
			Polymer-to-Monomer Ratio
			Polymer-Monomer Interaction
			Dough-Forming Time
			Working Time
			Packing
			Injection Molding Technique
		Polymerization Procedure
			Temperature Rise
			Polymerization Cycle
			Polymerization via Microwave Energy
	CAD-CAM Procedures in Denture Base Fabrication
	Chemical-Activated Denture Base Resins
		Technical Considerations
		Processing Considerations
		Heat-Activated Versus Chemical-Activated Denture Base
		Fluid-Resin Technique
	Light-Activated Denture Base Resins
	Physical Properties of Denture Base Resins
		Polymerization Shrinkage
		Porosity
		Water Sorption
		Solubility
		Processing Stresses
		Crazing
		Strength
		Impact Strength and Hardness
		Creep
	Biological Properties of Denture Base Resins
		Infection-Control Procedures
		Allergic Reactions
		Toxicology
	Additional Procedures Associated With Dentures
		Denture Repair
		Short-Term and Long-Term Resilient Soft Denture Liners
			Compositions
			Processing Resilient Soft Denture Liners
			Care of Denture Resilient Soft Liners
		Relining Resin Denture Bases
		Rebasing Resin Dentures
		Resin Impression Trays and Tray Materials
		Denture Cleansers
	Resin Teeth for Prosthetic Applications
	Materials for Maxillofacial Prosthetics
		Latexes
		Vinyl Plastisols
		Silicone Rubbers
		Polyurethane Polymers
		Chlorinated Polyethylene
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings  (Web Version)
12. Dental Implants
	Outline
	Key Terms
	History of Dental Implants
	Classification of Implants
		Anatomical Location and Implant Device Design
		Implant Properties
		Implant Attachment Mechanism
	Implant Components
	Implant Surgical Placement
	Evaluation of Clinical Success
		Criteria of Success
		Evaluation of Failure
		Longevity of Dental Implants
	Implant Biomaterials
		Metallic Implants
			Titanium and Titanium Alloy
			Stainless Steel
			Cobalt-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy
		Ceramic and Ceramic-Like Coated Metal Implant Systems
		Other Implant Materials
	Selecting an Implant System
		Characteristics of the Material
		Characteristics of HA Coating
		HA Coating and Bone Quality
	Biocompatibility of Implants
	Biomechanics
	Summary
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
13. Auxiliary Materials
	Outline
	Key Terms
		Impression materials
		Gypsum Products
		Waxes
	Classification of Impression Materials
	Elastomeric Impression Materials
		Chemistry of Elastomeric Impression Materials
			Polysulfide
			Condensation Silicone
			Addition Silicone
			Polyether
		Making Impressions With Elastomeric Materials
			Impression Trays
			Tissue Management
			Manipulation of Impression Materials
				Hand Mixing
				Static Mixing
				Dynamic Mechanical Mixing
			Techniques of Making Impressions
				Multiple-Mix Technique
				Monophase Technique
				Putty-Wash Technique
			Removal of the Impression
			Preparation of Stone Casts and Dies
		Properties of Elastomeric Impression Materials
			Working and Setting Times
			Rheological Properties
			Elasticity and Viscoelasticity
			Tear Strength
			Dimensional Stability
			Disinfection
			Effect of Mishandling
	Hydrocolloids
		Agar (Reversible Hydrocolloid)
			Composition
			Making Agar Impression
			Distortion During Gelation
		Alginate (Irreversible Hydrocolloid)
			Composition
			Gelation Process
			Controlling Setting Time
			Preparation of Alginate Impression Materials
			Making Alginate Impression
			Strength
			Shelf Life
		Properties of Hydrocolloid Impression Materials
			Dimensional Stability
			Compatibility With Gypsum
			Disinfection
			Accuracy
			Effects of Mishandling
		Duplicating Materials
	Inelastic Impression Materials
		Impression Plaster
		Impression Compound
		Zinc Oxide–Eugenol Impression Paste
	Gypsum Products
		Production of Gypsum Products
		Setting of Gypsum Products
			Setting Reaction
			Quantifying Setting Reactions
			Control of the Setting Time
			Modifiers for Controlling Setting Time
		Setting Expansion
			Mechanism of Setting Expansion
			Control of Setting Expansion
			Hygroscopic Setting Expansion
		Strength of Set Gypsum Products
			Effect of Water Content
			Effect of Water/Powder Ratio
			Effect of Manipulation and Additives
		Types of Gypsum Products
			Impression Plaster (Type I)
			Model Plaster (Type II)
			Dental Stone (Type III)
			Dental Stone, High Strength (Type IV)
			Dental Stone, High Strength, High Expansion (Type V)
			Special Gypsum Products
		Manipulation of Gypsum Products
			Care of Gypsum Products
			Proportioning
			Mixing and Pouring
			Care of the Cast
			Infection Control
	Dental Waxes
		Components of Dental Waxes
		Types of Dental Waxes
			Pattern Wax
			Processing Wax
			Impression Wax
		Properties of Wax
			Flow of Dental Wax
			Thermal Properties of Dental Waxes
			Mechanical Properties
			Residual Stress and Wax Distortion
		Manipulation of Inlay Wax
	Suggested Readings
	Suggested Readings (Web Version)
		Impression Materials
		Gypsum Products
		Dental Wax
14. Casting Investments and Casting Procedures
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Preparation of the Master Die
	Wax Pattern and Sprue Design
		Wax-Pattern Removal
		Sprue Diameter
		Sprue Position and Attachment
	Investment Materials
		Gypsum-Bonded Investments
			Composition
			Setting Expansion
			Hygroscopic Setting Expansion
			Thermal Expansion
			Strength
			Porosity of Set Investment
			Storage
		Phosphate-Bonded Investment
			Composition
			Setting Reaction
			Setting and Thermal Expansion
			Working and Setting Time
			Surface Quality of Cast Metals
		Ethyl Silicate–Bonded Investment
	Investing Procedure
		Vacuum Mixing
		Control of Shrinkage Compensation
			Casting Ring Liner
			Altering Liquid/Powder Ratio
			Controlled Water-Added Technique
	Casting Procedure
		Wax Elimination and Heating
		Hygroscopic Low-Heat Technique
		High-Heat Thermal Expansion Technique
		Casting Metal in Gypsum Investments
		Casting in Phosphate Investments
		Time Allowable for Casting
		Casting Machines
			Torch Melting/Centrifugal Casting Machine
			Electrical Resistance–Heated Casting Machine
			Induction Melting Machine
			Direct-Current Arc Melting Machine
		Additional Variables Associated With Casting
			Casting Crucibles
			Torch Melting of Noble-Metal Alloy
			Melting of Base Metals
			Cleaning the Casting
	Clinical Evaluation of Casting Fit
	Causes of Defective Castings
		Distortion
		Surface Roughness, Irregularities, and Discoloration
			Air Voids
			Water Films
			Liquid/Powder Ratio
			Foreign Bodies
			Impact of Molten Alloy on the Mold Wall
			Pattern Position
		Porosity
		Incomplete Casting
		Other Causes
	Suggested Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
15. Digital Technology in Dentistry
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Intraoral Digital Scanner
		Digital Impressions
		Color Matching
	Prototyping Tools
		Indications for CAD-CAM
		Subtractive Manufacturing—CAM Milling Machines
			CAD-CAM Systems
			CAD-CAM Materials
			CAD-CAM Case
		Additive Manufacturing—3-D Printing
			Current Additive Manufacturing Technologies
				Stereolithography
				Fused Deposition Modeling
				Selective Laser Melting
			Materials for Additive Manufacturing
	Diagnostic Systems
		Cone-Beam Computed Tomography
		Optically Based Caries Diagnosis
		Virtual and Augmented Reality
	The Future
	Selected Readings
		Selected Readings (Web Version)
			Web page
			Publications
16. Materials and Processes for Cutting, Grinding, Finishing, and Polishing
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Benefits of Finishing and Polishing Restorative Materials
	Mechanics of Abrasive Procedures
		Abrasion
		Erosion
		Abrasive Motion
	Abrasive Processes in Dentistry
		Cutting
		Grinding
		Finishing
		Polishing
		Biological Hazards of Abrasive Procedures
	Abrasive Instruments
		Types of Abrasives
		Design of Abrasive Instruments
			Bonded Abrasives
			Coated Abrasive Discs and Strips
			Nonbonded Abrasives
	Finishing and Polishing Procedures
		Resin-Based Composite Restorations
		Dental Amalgam
		Dental Alloys
		Ceramic Restorations
		Acrylic Resins for Denture Bases and Veneers
		Air-Particle Abrasion Technology
		Prophylaxis Paste Selection for Dental Hygiene Procedures
	Dentifrices
		Dentifrice Composition
		Dentifrice Abrasiveness
		Toothbrushes
	Summary and Recommendations
	Acknowledgment
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
17. Biocompatibility
	Outline
	Key Terms
		GENERAL
		BIOLOGICAL OR CLINICAL EFFECTS
		LIMIT VALUES
	Basic Concept of Biocompatibility
	Biological Effects From Exposure to Dental Materials
		Systemic Effects of Materials
			CMR Effects
			Estrogenicity
		Local Effects of Materials
			Pulp Tissue
			Periodontium
			Tooth–Restoration Interfaces—Microleakage and Nanoleakage
			Bone–Implant Interface
		Allergic Reactions
			Frequencies
			Symptoms
			Inflammation
			Patch Test
			Immunotoxicity
		Effect on the Environment
	Occupational Hazards for Dental Personnel
	Biocompatibility Testing
		Purpose of Biocompatibility Testing
		Release of Substances From Materials
		Dose–Response Relationship of Toxicity
		Test Requirements
		Types of Biocompatibility Tests
			In Vitro Tests
			Animal Tests
			Usage Test
			Test Strategy
		Responsibilities
		Biocompatibility Testing Standards
		Safety Data Sheets
		Labeling
	Legal Regulations and Risk Classes
		Risk Classes
		Postmarket Surveillance
	Side Effect of Various Material Groups
		Dental Amalgam
			Mercury
			Symptoms of Mercury Poisoning
			Mercury Release From Amalgam and Body Uptake
			Clinical Symptoms After Amalgam Application
				Systemic Reactions
				Local Reactions
				Allergic Reactions
			FDA Recommendations
			Environment
			Handling of Mercury in the Dental Office
		Methacrylates and Resin Composites
			Systemic Reactions
			Local Reactions
				Pulp Reactions
				Gingival Reactions
			Allergic Reactions
		Dental Alloys
			Metal Ions Released From Alloys
			Systemic Reactions
			Local Reactions
			Allergic Reactions
				Nickel Allergy
				Palladium Allergy
				Ni-Pd Cross-Reactivity
				Titanium and Titanium Alloys
				Other Metals
				Symptoms of Metal Allergic Reactions
				Immunotoxicity of Metals
		Dental Ceramics
			Adverse Reactions
			Radioactivity of Dental Ceramics
		Hydrofluoric Acid
			Exposure of Skin, Mucosa, and Eyes
			Inhalation of HF Fume and Ventilation
			Emergency Treatment
		Glass-Ionomer Cements
			Composition and Release of Substances
			Adverse Reactions to RMGIs
		Natural Rubber Latex
			Composition and Release of Substances
			Allergic Reactions
			Precautionary Measures
	Patient Reports and Complaints of Adverse Effects
	Clinical Guidelines for Selecting Biocompatible Materials
		Define the Intended Use and Indications for Restorative Materials
		Identify the Main Components of the Material
		Evaluate the Safety and Performance of Dental Materials
		Risks Versus Benefits of Dental Materials
		Anamnesis (Patient’s Account of Medical History)
		Treatment Planning
		Risk Communication
	Acknowledgments
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
18. In Vitro Research on Dental Materials
	Outline
	Key Terms
	The Role of In Vitro Research
		Design of Experiments
		Accelerated Lifetime Testing
		Virtual Modeling
	Clinical Relevance of In Vitro Tests
		Precision Versus Clinical Relevance
		The Weibull Size Effect
		Clinical Significance Versus Statistical Significance
	Standardization of In Vitro Test Methods
		ADA Specifications and Acceptance Program
		International Standards
	Limitations of Standards for In Vitro Research
	Acknowledgment
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
19. Clinical Research on Restorations
	Outline
	Key Terms
	What Is Evidence-Based Dentistry?
	Level of Evidence in Evidence-Based Dentistry
		In Vitro Testing
		Observational Studies
			Retrospective Studies
			Case-Control Studies
			Prospective Studies
		Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials
	Clinical Analysis of Survival and Acceptability
		Clinical Assessment of Restorations
		Wear Analysis
			Indirect Method
			Direct Method
		Critical Observation and Fractographic Analysis
			Characteristics of Fracture Surface
			Characterization of Fracture Surface
			Classification of Ceramic Restoration Fractures
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
20. Emerging Technologies
	Outline
	Key Terms
	Biomaterials
		Nanotechnology
		Resin Restorative Materials
		Bioactive Materials
		Antimicrobial Materials
		Remineralizing Agents and Materials
		Bone-Grafting Materials
		Stimulus-Responsive “Smart” Materials
		Self-Assembling Materials
		Self-Healing (Self-Repairing) Materials
	Biological Materials
		Biomimetics
		Tissue Engineering
		Delivery Systems for Biologicals
		Regenerative Dentistry
	Instruments and Processes
		Diagnostic Devices and Techniques
			Cone-Beam Computed Tomography
			Swept-Source Optical Coherence Tomography
			Laser-Induced Fluorescence
			Laser Photothermal Radiometry
			Ultrasound Imaging
			Infrared Spectroscopy for Multiple Inflammatory Parameters
			Salivary Genetic Testing
			Liquid-Based Cytology
		Computer-Driven Fabrication Systems
	Summary
	Selected Readings
	Selected Readings (Web Version)
		Useful Websites (Accessed May 2020)
		Publications