Pesticide Selectivity, Health and the Environment

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 11
Acknowledgements and permissions......Page 13
Trademarks and registered trademarks......Page 15
Abbreviations and acronyms......Page 17
Units......Page 18
1.1 Introduction......Page 19
1.2 Selectivity, toxicity and dose response......Page 21
1.3 Concepts of hazard and risk......Page 26
1.4 Pesticide discovery and development......Page 28
1.5 Regulation of pesticide use......Page 32
1.6 Extent of the pesticide industry......Page 35
PART I Pesticides and their mode of action......Page 41
2.1 Introduction......Page 42
2.2 The auxin hormone herbicides......Page 46
2.3 Inhibitors of photosynthesis......Page 51
2.3.1 Inhibition of photosynthesis at photosystem II......Page 52
2.3.2 Inhibition by herbicides that divert electron flow at photosystem 1......Page 56
2.4.1 Protox inhibitors......Page 58
2.4.2 Inhibitors of carotenoid biosynthesis......Page 60
2.5.1 Glyphosate and glufosinate......Page 64
2.5.2 Inhibitors of acetolactate synthase......Page 65
2.6 Graminicides – herbicides that kill grass weeds......Page 68
2.7 Inhibitors of other cellular processes in plants......Page 70
2.8 Selectivity, mode of action and herbicide resistance......Page 72
2.9 Herbicide safeners......Page 74
2.10 Selectivity, mode of action and the development of herbicide-resistant crops......Page 75
2.11 New herbicides and novel mechanisms of selectivity......Page 76
2.12 Plant growth regulators......Page 77
2.12.1 PGRs based on plant hormones......Page 78
2.12.2 Synthetic plant growth regulators......Page 79
3.1 Introduction......Page 83
3.2 Early protectant fungicides......Page 86
3.3 Organosulphur protectant fungicides......Page 88
3.4 Other organic protectant fungicides......Page 89
3.5 Systemic fungicides......Page 91
3.6 Systemic fungicides with a narrow spectrum of activity......Page 92
3.7.1 Benzimidazole fungicides......Page 95
3.7.2 Inhibitors of sterol biosynthesis......Page 98
3.7.3 Strobilurins and other systemics that inhibit electron transport......Page 103
3.7.4 Other systemic and curative fungicides......Page 106
3.8 Consequences of selectivity – fungicide resistance......Page 108
4.1 Introduction......Page 110
4.2 Insecticides that act on the nervous system......Page 114
4.2.1 Pyrethrins and pyrethroid insecticides......Page 117
4.2.2 Organophosphorus and methylcarbamate insecticides......Page 120
4.2.3 Nicotine, the neonicotinoids and spinosyns......Page 125
4.2.4 Organochlorine compounds......Page 127
4.2.5 Avermectins......Page 131
4.2.6 Fipronil and amitraz......Page 132
4.3 Arthropod pesticides that inhibit respiration......Page 133
4.4 Regulators of insect growth......Page 136
4.5 Toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis......Page 139
4.6 Selectivity, insecticide resistance and compounds with a novel mode of action......Page 140
5.2 Soil sterilants......Page 143
5.3 Vertebrate poisons......Page 146
PART II Risks to Health and the Environment From Pesticides......Page 151
6.1 Introduction......Page 153
6.2.1 Acute toxicity......Page 156
6.2.2 Short-term toxicity......Page 159
6.2.3 Chronic toxicity......Page 160
6.2.4 Estimates of dietary intakes of pesticides......Page 162
6.2.5 Harmonisation of toxicity testing......Page 166
6.3 The fate of pesticides in mammals......Page 167
7.2 Risks to health from pesticide concentrates......Page 174
7.2.3 The use of protective clothing......Page 178
7.2.4 The use of appropriate measuring procedures......Page 179
7.3 Risks to health from diluted pesticides at or following application......Page 182
7.4 Pesticide residues in foodstuffs......Page 190
7.5 Pesticide residues in drinking water......Page 196
7.6 Pesticides in human tissues......Page 199
8.1 Introduction......Page 202
8.2 Spraying......Page 203
8.3 Physical and chemical properties of pesticides......Page 208
8.4 Pesticides in the atmosphere......Page 212
8.5 Pesticides in soils......Page 213
8.6 Chemical and microbial degradation of pesticides in soils......Page 215
8.7 Movement of pesticides from soils and hard surfaces to water......Page 220
8.8 Pesticides in natural waters......Page 224
9.1 Introduction......Page 229
9.2 Early studies and identification of the long-term effects of organochlorines......Page 230
9.3 Regulatory requirements and non-target organisms......Page 232
9.4.1 Non-target plants......Page 234
9.4.2 Bees......Page 235
9.4.3 Predators and parasitoids......Page 237
9.5.2 Effects of pesticides on earthworms......Page 238
9.5.3 Effects of pesticides on soil-inhabiting arthropods......Page 241
9.6 Effects of pesticides on non-target invertebrates in water......Page 242
9.7 Pesticides and fish......Page 246
9.8 Amphibians, reptiles and pesticides......Page 249
9.9 Pesticides and birds......Page 250
9.10 Pesticides and mammals......Page 258
9.11 Monitoring of the effects of pesticides on non-target species in the UK......Page 260
10.1 Introduction......Page 263
10.2 Obsolete and unusable stocks/unwanted imports......Page 267
10.3 Comparative analysis of risks to human health: pesticides and other hazards......Page 270
10.4 Pesticides and endocrine disruption......Page 280
10.5 Environmental hazards, wildlife deaths and loss of biodiversity......Page 282
10.6 Animal and livestock deaths......Page 287
10.7 Problems of resistance and interference with natural pest control......Page 289
10.8 Risks arising from not using pesticides......Page 292
10.9 Risk assessment for pesticides – a summary......Page 295
10.10 Current perspectives and future prospects......Page 298
References......Page 303
Index......Page 317