Personality Traits, 2nd Edition

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Figures......Page 12
Tables......Page 15
Boxes......Page 18
Preface to the first edition......Page 21
Preface to the second edition......Page 25
I The nature of personality traits......Page 27
Everyday conceptions of traits......Page 29
Scientific conceptions of traits......Page 30
A brief history of traits......Page 33
The four humours......Page 34
The first empirical studies......Page 36
The beginnings of trait theory......Page 37
Questionnaire construction and psychometrics......Page 38
Psychometrics of single scales......Page 39
Psychometrics of multiple traits: factor analysis......Page 40
Further techniques of factor analysis......Page 43
The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)......Page 44
Higher-order factors: the ‘Big Five’ or the ‘Gigantic Three’?......Page 47
H.J. Eysenck’s three factor model......Page 48
Costa and McCrae’s five factor model......Page 49
The consensus from the lexical approach......Page 51
The consensus from questionnaire studies......Page 54
Remaining doubts: psychometric and theoretical issues......Page 56
Conclusions......Page 63
Further reading......Page 64
The situationist critique of traits......Page 65
Testing consistency in empirical studies......Page 66
Consistency of behaviour: the role of context......Page 69
Implications of the situationist controversy for trait research......Page 71
Interactionism......Page 75
Are traits universal across cultures?......Page 78
Cross-cultural research on traits......Page 79
Cross-cultural generality of traits: conclusions......Page 82
Further reading......Page 83
Trait stability......Page 84
Empirical studies of stability......Page 85
Studies of the Big Five and Eysenck traits......Page 87
Stability: further issues......Page 88
Temperament......Page 90
Measures of temperament......Page 91
The neo-Pavlovian tradition......Page 93
The relationship between temperament and personality......Page 95
Temperament, personality and stability: longitudinal studies......Page 96
Conclusions......Page 101
Further reading......Page 102
Introduction: the place of states in trait theory......Page 103
Zuckerman’s criteria for state measures......Page 104
Causal status of states as mediating variables......Page 106
Theories of state mediation......Page 107
State dimensions: affect, mood and self-report arousal......Page 111
Two mood dimensions: energy and tension......Page 112
Three-dimensional models: separating pleasure from arousal......Page 114
Differentiating negative emotions......Page 116
Validity of mood scales......Page 118
Beyond mood: additional state domains......Page 120
Cognitive aspects of state......Page 121
Subjective states and the ‘trilogy of mind’......Page 122
Traits and states: empirical studies......Page 123
Correlational studies: extraversion and neuroticism......Page 126
Beyond positive and negative affectivity: other traits, other states......Page 129
Experimental studies......Page 130
Explaining the state correlates of extraversion and neuroticism......Page 132
Conclusions......Page 135
Note......Page 137
5 Alternatives to trait theory......Page 138
The contribution of psychoanalysis......Page 139
Correspondences between psychodynamic and trait approaches to personality structure......Page 140
Empirical studies of psychoanalysis and personality......Page 142
The unconscious: contemporary studies......Page 144
Experimental studies of the unconscious......Page 145
Implications for trait theory......Page 147
Humanistic and phenomenological approaches......Page 148
The self-construction of personality......Page 150
Self-actualisation......Page 151
Contemporary studies of self-directed motivation......Page 153
Conclusions......Page 156
II Causes of personality traits......Page 159
Three basic designs......Page 161
Twin studies......Page 164
Adoption studies......Page 165
Molecular genetic (quantitative trait loci, QTL) studies......Page 166
Twin studies......Page 167
A gene-environment model of extraversion in five twin studies......Page 168
Non-additive genetic variance......Page 169
The equal environments assumption......Page 170
Adoption studies......Page 171
Twin-family studies......Page 173
Separated-twin studies......Page 174
Genes, environment and multiple personality traits......Page 175
The environment......Page 178
Personality change......Page 183
Genetic covariation......Page 184
Molecular genetic studies of personality......Page 187
Conclusions......Page 190
Introduction: neuropsychological approaches to personality......Page 192
Ground-plans for neuropsychological theory......Page 194
Eysenck’s (1967) arousal theory......Page 195
An alternative conceptual nervous system: Gray (1991)......Page 196
The complexity of personality: Zuckerman’s (1991) model......Page 198
From brain to behaviour: testing neuropsychological theories......Page 199
Electroencephalography (EEG)......Page 200
Brain average evoked potentials (EPs)......Page 202
Electrodermal activity......Page 203
Heart rate......Page 204
Functional brain imaging techniques......Page 207
The arousal concept......Page 210
Studies of extraversion, the EEG and evoked potentials......Page 212
Extraversion and the autonomic nervous system......Page 215
Neuroticism and arousal......Page 216
Psychoticism, impulsivity and sensation seeking......Page 217
Traits and arousal: conclusions......Page 218
Personality and sensitivity to motivational stimuli......Page 219
Initial studies......Page 221
Revisions to RST......Page 222
Reinforcement sensitivity theory: conclusions......Page 224
Psychophysiology: where next?......Page 225
Conclusions......Page 227
Further reading......Page 229
Introduction: personality and social behaviour......Page 230
Social constructivism......Page 231
Social-cognitive approaches to personality......Page 232
Traits and social behaviour......Page 234
A social-psychological agenda for trait psychology......Page 235
Interactionist perspectives on development......Page 236
Development of self-efficacy......Page 240
Individual differences in attachment......Page 244
The self-schema......Page 246
Other sources of consistency......Page 248
Sources of inconsistency......Page 250
The interactionist perspective: the role of social cues......Page 251
Agreeableness and social behaviour......Page 253
Cognitive substrate of agreeableness......Page 254
‘Social psychological’ traits......Page 255
Belief and attitude systems......Page 256
Self-related traits......Page 257
A rapprochement between social psychology and trait theory?......Page 258
Conclusions......Page 261
Further reading......Page 263
III Consequences and applications......Page 265
Defining stress......Page 267
Measuring stress......Page 268
Stress and physiological reactivity......Page 269
Individual differences in the physiological stress response......Page 270
Neuroticism and stress vulnerability......Page 271
Neuroticism and stress outcomes in everyday life......Page 272
Vulnerability to psychiatric symptoms......Page 274
The problem of subjectivity: causal relationships between neuroticism and stress......Page 276
Transactional models of stress: appraisal......Page 279
Traits and the transactional model......Page 281
Mediators of neuroticism......Page 284
Hardiness......Page 286
Optimism and hope......Page 287
Resources influencing secondary cognitive appraisal......Page 288
Spiritual or religious coping......Page 289
Neuroticism, stress and emotional disorders: a self-regulative perspective......Page 290
Building a self-regulative model: basic constructs......Page 291
Neuroticism within the S-REF model......Page 292
Vulnerability factors in mental disorder......Page 294
Conclusions......Page 296
Further reading......Page 298
Models of the association between personality and health......Page 299
Personality and longevity......Page 301
Heart disease......Page 302
Personality and myocardial infarction......Page 304
Cancer......Page 305
Neuroticism as a risk factor for multiple diseases......Page 309
Stress and coronary disease......Page 310
Stress and the common cold......Page 312
Stress-buffers: optimism, hope, spirituality and happiness in relation to illness......Page 313
Traits and health-related behaviours......Page 314
Life course approaches to personality, stress and illness......Page 315
Models of psychosomatic illness......Page 316
Conclusions......Page 318
Further reading......Page 319
11 Abnormal personality traits?......Page 320
History of personality disorder concepts......Page 321
Classificatory schemes for personality disorder......Page 322
Personality disorders – descriptions of the individual disorders......Page 324
The problems of labelling and tautology......Page 326
The problem of construct overlap......Page 328
Improving the validity of personality disorder constructs......Page 329
Disorder in the DSM system of personality disorder......Page 331
Dimensional models of abnormal personality......Page 332
A dimensional model for the personality disorders......Page 334
The four As model of personality disorder......Page 337
Individual dimensions of abnormal personality......Page 340
The five factor model as a basis for integration......Page 343
DSM-IV personality disorders and the Cloninger and Eysenck personality systems......Page 346
Conclusions......Page 348
Further reading......Page 350
Performance studies and trait theory......Page 351
Moderator factors: context-sensitivity and task-dependence......Page 353
Key traits in performance research......Page 354
Psychobiological theories......Page 355
Cognitive psychological alternatives......Page 358
Cognitive neuroscience approaches......Page 360
The cognitive patterning of extraversion......Page 361
Psychobiological explanations for cognitive patterning......Page 365
Cognitive explanations......Page 366
Extraversion and performance: conclusions......Page 368
Basic empirical findings......Page 370
Anxiety and performance impairment......Page 371
Anxiety and attentional bias......Page 373
Personality and intelligence......Page 376
Empirical associations between personality and intelligence......Page 378
Creativity and the personality–intelligence interface......Page 379
Conclusions......Page 381
Further reading......Page 382
Principles of trait assessment......Page 383
Comprehensive or targeted assessment?......Page 384
Evaluation of questionnaires......Page 385
Response bias......Page 388
Practical issues......Page 391
Educational psychology......Page 394
Clinical psychology......Page 396
Meta-analyses of the Big Five......Page 400
Organisational correlates of personality: moderator variables......Page 403
Organisational psychology: further applications......Page 404
Vocational choice......Page 405
Career progression and change......Page 406
Work satisfaction and stress......Page 407
Emotional intelligence......Page 408
Assessment of emotional intelligence......Page 409
Applications to organisational psychology......Page 413
Conclusions......Page 414
Further reading......Page 416
Psychometric issues......Page 417
Biological bases of personality......Page 418
Integration with mainstream psychology......Page 419
Applications of trait theory......Page 421
Towards a theory of traits......Page 422
Traditional biological theories of personality......Page 423
Multi-component approaches......Page 424
A cognitive-adaptive theory......Page 427
Traits and the coherence of personality theory......Page 432
Conclusions......Page 435
References......Page 437
Author index......Page 508
Subject index......Page 513