Personality, individual differences and intelligence

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Brief Contents......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
About the Authors......Page 19
Preface......Page 20
Acknowledgements......Page 25
PART 1 Personality and Individual Differences......Page 28
  Learning outcomes......Page 29
  General population perspectives: implicit personality theories......Page 30
   Lay definitions of personality......Page 31
  The aims of studying personality......Page 32
   Approaches to studying personality: idiographic versus nomothetic......Page 34
   Distinctions and assertions in personality research......Page 36
   Measurement issues......Page 37
   The clinical approach and its history......Page 39
   Current conceptualisations of individual differences......Page 40
   Studying personality as a personal experience......Page 41
  Reading critically and evaluating theories......Page 43
  The cultural context of personality theories......Page 45
  Summary......Page 46
  Going further......Page 47
  Film and literature......Page 48
  Learning outcomes......Page 49
   Levels of consciousness......Page 50
   The nature of human beings and the source of human motivation......Page 52
   The structure of the personality......Page 54
   The development of personality......Page 55
   Repression......Page 58
   Rationalisation......Page 59
   Regression......Page 60
  Clinical applications of Freudian theory......Page 61
   Empirical validity and testable concepts......Page 63
   Parsimony......Page 65
  Final comments......Page 66
  Summary......Page 67
  Going further......Page 68
  Film and literature......Page 69
  Learning outcomes......Page 71
  Introduction......Page 72
   Inferiority feelings......Page 73
   Personality development in Adlerian terms......Page 74
   Characteristics of the neurotic personality......Page 75
   Adlerian treatment approaches......Page 76
   Evaluation of Adler’s individual psychology theory......Page 77
  Carl Jung and analytic psychology......Page 79
   Structures within the psyche......Page 80
   Jungian personality types......Page 82
   Jung’s conception of mental illness and its treatment......Page 83
   Description......Page 84
   Comprehensiveness......Page 85
   Essentials of Horney’s theoretical position......Page 86
   The development of the personality and the neurotic personality......Page 87
   Defence mechanisms......Page 90
   Penis envy and female masochism......Page 92
   Comprehensiveness......Page 93
  Summary......Page 94
  Connecting up......Page 95
  Going further......Page 96
  Film and literature......Page 98
  Learning outcomes......Page 99
  Introduction......Page 100
  Introduction to learning theory......Page 101
   The clinical perspective within classical conditioning......Page 102
  The radical behaviourism of B. F. Skinner......Page 103
  Attempts to apply learning theory approaches to personality......Page 107
   The stimulus-response model of personality of Dollard and Miller......Page 108
  Albert Bandura and social learning theory......Page 109
   Learning with Bandura’s model......Page 111
   Personality development in social learning theory......Page 112
   Increasing self-efficacy ratings......Page 113
   Measuring self-efficacy......Page 114
  Julian Rotter and locus of control......Page 115
   The impact of locus of control on behaviour......Page 116
  Walter Mischel......Page 117
   The impact of Mischel......Page 121
   Explanation......Page 122
   Comprehensiveness......Page 123
  Final comments......Page 124
  Summary......Page 125
  Critical thinking......Page 126
  Going further......Page 127
  Film and literature......Page 128
  Learning outcomes......Page 129
  Introduction......Page 130
   The view of the person in Kelly’s theory......Page 131
   Concepts within Kelly’s theory......Page 132
   Assessing personality in personal construct theory......Page 136
   Clinical applications of personal construct theory......Page 138
   Origins of the theory of rational-emotive behaviour therapy......Page 139
   Rational and irrational thoughts......Page 140
   The importance of perception and the subjective worldview......Page 142
   The basic model of rational-emotive behaviour therapy......Page 145
   Research evidence for effectiveness of rational-emotive behaviour therapy......Page 147
   Contentious issues......Page 148
   Parsimony......Page 149
  Summary......Page 150
  Going further......Page 151
  Film and literature......Page 152
  Learning outcomes......Page 154
  Introduction......Page 155
   Human nature and human motivation......Page 156
   Hierarchy of needs......Page 158
   Characteristics of self-actualisers......Page 160
   Personality development......Page 161
   Evaluation of Maslow’s approach......Page 162
   Basic principles underlying the theory......Page 164
   Effect of society on self-actualisation......Page 166
   Developmental impact on the child of their parents’ self-concept......Page 168
   The role of the actualising tendency in development......Page 169
   Rogers’ conceptualisation of psychological problems......Page 170
   The principles of Rogerian counselling......Page 171
   The role of the therapist or counsellor......Page 173
   Evaluation of Rogers’ theory......Page 176
  Self-determination theory......Page 178
   The four theories of self-determination theory......Page 179
   The reward controversy and the eight criteria......Page 183
   Applied value......Page 184
  Final comments......Page 185
  Summary......Page 186
  Going further......Page 187
  Film and literature......Page 188
  Learning outcomes......Page 190
  Introduction......Page 191
  Emergence of personality traits......Page 192
   Sheldon and somatotypes......Page 193
  Early lexical approaches to personality and the lexical hypothesis......Page 194
  Gordon Allport......Page 195
   Types of traits......Page 197
  Hans Eysenck’s trait theory of personality......Page 201
   Eysenck’s structure of personality......Page 202
   Research evidence for Eysenck’s types......Page 205
   Evidential sources for the five-factor model......Page 206
   Theory of the HEXACO model of personality structure......Page 209
  The big one? The general factor of personality......Page 213
  Evaluation of trait approaches......Page 215
  Summary......Page 216
  Critical thinking......Page 217
  Going further......Page 218
  Film and literature......Page 219
  Learning outcomes......Page 220
   How the influence of genes is assessed in behavioural genetics......Page 221
   Genetic heritability estimates and personality......Page 223
   Conceptions of genetic heritability and the environment......Page 227
   Shared and non-shared environments......Page 228
   Problems with the representativeness of twin and adoption studies......Page 233
   Changing world of genetics......Page 234
  A framework for considering heritability in personality......Page 235
  Psychophysiology, neuropsychology and personality......Page 237
   Eysenck’s biological model of personality and arousal......Page 238
   Gray’s BAS/BIS theory......Page 240
   Cloninger’s biological model of personality......Page 243
   The central nervous system and biological personality dimensions......Page 245
   Consideration of biological theories of personality......Page 246
  Final comments......Page 247
  Critical thinking......Page 248
  Film and literature......Page 249
  Learning outcomes......Page 251
   Evolutionary psychology and adaptation......Page 252
   An introduction to evolutionary personality psychology: Buss’ theory of personality and adaptation......Page 257
   How individual differences arise through cooperation: the example of leadership......Page 259
   Life history and personality......Page 261
   Consideration of the evolutionary theory of personality......Page 263
   Animals and personality: a historical context......Page 264
   Methods in animal personality research......Page 265
   Reliability and validity of animal personality research......Page 266
   Animal personality: informing evolutionary theories of personality?......Page 267
   Consideration of animal personality research......Page 268
   Definitions of personality: broad and narrow......Page 270
   The conceptual nature and function of adaptive personality traits: plasticity versus highly constrained......Page 271
  Final comments......Page 272
  Connecting up......Page 273
  Going further......Page 274
  Film and literature......Page 275
PART 2 Intelligence......Page 276
  Learning outcomes......Page 277
  Why does intelligence matter?......Page 278
   Laypersons’ implicit theories of intelligence......Page 279
   Laypersons’ implicit theories across cultures......Page 281
   Implicit theories of intelligence across the lifespan......Page 285
   Expert conceptions of intelligence......Page 287
   A task force in intelligence......Page 288
  The focus of this part of the text......Page 289
  Critical thinking......Page 291
  Film and literature......Page 292
  Learning outcomes......Page 293
   Galton......Page 294
   Binet......Page 295
   Terman......Page 296
   Yerkes......Page 297
   ‘g’......Page 298
   Measuring ‘g’: the Wechsler and Raven’s Matrices......Page 299
   Thurstone: ‘g’ results from seven primary mental abilities......Page 306
   Guilford: many different intelligences and many different combinations......Page 307
  Intelligence and factor analysis – a third way: the hierarchical approach......Page 308
   Vernon......Page 309
   Cattell, Horn and Carroll (CHC): theory, research and practice together......Page 310
   Howard Gardner: multiple intelligences......Page 311
   Robert Sternberg......Page 314
  Final comments......Page 316
  Summary......Page 317
  Critical thinking......Page 318
  Film and literature......Page 319
  Learning outcomes......Page 320
  Types of intelligence tests......Page 321
   Simple biological and physiological measures of intelligence......Page 322
   Alexander Romanovich Luria......Page 323
   Das and Naglieri’s cognitive assessment system and the Kaufman’s ability tests......Page 325
   The uses of intelligence tests......Page 329
   Problems and issues with intelligence tests......Page 333
   The intelligent use of intelligence tests......Page 336
   How was the Flynn effect discovered?......Page 337
   Explanations of the Flynn effect......Page 340
   The nutrition hypothesis versus the cognitive stimulation hypothesis......Page 345
   An end to the Flynn effect?......Page 347
  Summary......Page 348
  Going further......Page 349
  Film and literature......Page 350
  Learning outcomes......Page 351
  Introduction......Page 352
   Heritability of intelligence......Page 353
   What do we mean by heritability of intelligence?......Page 354
   Heritability estimates of intelligence......Page 355
   Considerations within behavioural genetics and intelligence......Page 357
  Environmental influences on intelligence......Page 359
   Biological variables and maternal effects......Page 360
   Family environment......Page 363
   Education and intelligence......Page 369
   Culture and intelligence......Page 370
  Final comments on genetic heritability and environmental influences on intelligence......Page 371
  The bell curve......Page 372
   The bell curve: intelligence and class structure in American life......Page 373
   IQ scores and social and economic problems: looking at the lower end of the bell curve......Page 374
   The relationship between race and IQ: implications for social policy......Page 376
   Analysis of the assumptions used by Herrnstein and Murray......Page 377
   Statistical and evidence-based problems in The Bell Curve arguments......Page 381
   A darker side of psychology related to Herrnstein and Murray’s analysis......Page 383
  Summary......Page 385
  Going further......Page 386
  Film and literature......Page 387
  Learning outcomes......Page 389
  Introduction......Page 390
   Salovey and Mayer’s four-branch model of emotional intelligence......Page 391
   Goleman’s model of emotional intelligence......Page 394
   Bar-On’s model of emotional intelligence......Page 397
   Providing contexts for understanding the three models of emotional intelligence......Page 398
   The application of emotional intelligence in psychology......Page 401
   Sex differences in emotional intelligence......Page 402
   Critical consideration of emotional intelligence theory and research......Page 403
  Creativity......Page 405
   Press......Page 406
   Product......Page 407
   Sternberg’s creative leadership theory: what constitutes creativity?......Page 408
   Creativity and ‘psychopathology’......Page 410
   Sex differences on measures of general intelligence......Page 413
   Sex differences in specific intelligences......Page 415
  Looking for explanations of sex differences in measures of intelligence......Page 417
  Biological variables for sex differences in measures of general intelligence......Page 418
   Biological variables for sex differences in spatial intelligence......Page 419
   Summary of biological factors in sex differences in intelligence......Page 422
  Environmental explanations for sex differences in intelligence......Page 423
   Stereotypes and sex differences in intelligence within education......Page 424
   Interactions between technology and socioeconomic status and their influence on intelligence in the classroom......Page 426
   Stereotype emphasis......Page 427
   Interim summary for sex differences in intelligence......Page 428
  Summary......Page 429
  Critical thinking......Page 430
  Going further......Page 431
  Film and Literature......Page 432
  Learning outcomes......Page 433
  Introduction......Page 434
   Established measures of personality and intelligence: predictors of achievement in education and work......Page 435
   The difficulties with using established measures of personality and intelligence in education and work......Page 438
   Learning processes......Page 440
   Learning styles......Page 441
   Application and measurement of learning processes and styles......Page 442
   Emotional intelligence and leadership......Page 443
   Emotional intelligence and self-learning......Page 444
   Consideration of emotional intelligence in education and the workplace......Page 445
   Wisdom......Page 447
   Modern conceptions of giftedness: not just high IQ?......Page 449
   Psychological models of giftedness......Page 451
   Summary of giftedness......Page 453
  Working with those who have learning disabilities: the positive historical line......Page 454
   Theory and programme of structural Cognitive Modifiability......Page 455
  Summary......Page 457
  Going further......Page 458
  Film and literature......Page 459
PART 3 Applications in Individual Differences......Page 460
  Learning outcomes......Page 461
  Introduction......Page 462
   Learned helplessness versus learned optimism......Page 464
   Distraction and disputation......Page 466
   The Life Orientation Test: a measure of dispositional optimism......Page 467
   Coping and appraisals......Page 468
   Benefits of optimism and well-being......Page 470
  Situational optimism......Page 473
  Hope......Page 475
   Benefits of hope......Page 476
   A consideration of false hope......Page 478
  Optimism versus ‘positive thinking’......Page 479
  Connecting up......Page 481
  Critical thinking......Page 482
  Film and literature......Page 483
  Learning outcomes......Page 485
  Introduction......Page 486
   The ABCs of human disturbance......Page 487
   ‘Must-urbatory’ thinking and disturbance......Page 490
   Irrational beliefs and mental health......Page 493
   The case for and against religion......Page 495
   The case for and against luck: the importance of belief in good luck......Page 499
   Superstitious beliefs......Page 500
  Irrational beliefs and sport......Page 502
  Summary......Page 504
  Going further......Page 505
  Film and literature......Page 506
  Learning outcomes......Page 507
  Introducing social anxieties and social anxiety disorder......Page 508
  What exactly is social anxiety disorder?......Page 509
   General symptoms, prevalence and conceptions of social anxiety disorder......Page 510
   Definitions and diagnosis of social anxiety disorder......Page 511
   What causes social anxiety disorder?......Page 512
  Shyness......Page 514
   What is shyness?......Page 515
   The consequences of shyness......Page 517
   Trait shyness......Page 518
  Embarrassment......Page 522
   Four theories of embarrassment......Page 524
   Re-evaluation of the embarrassment models......Page 525
   Categorisation of embarrassing situations......Page 526
   Embarrassment, measurement and personality......Page 527
  Summary......Page 528
  Critical thinking......Page 529
  Film and literature......Page 530
  Learning outcomes......Page 532
  Introduction......Page 533
   Theories of interpersonal attraction......Page 534
   Fatal attraction......Page 535
   The triangular theory of love......Page 536
   Love styles (or the colours of love)......Page 538
   Individual and group differences in love styles......Page 540
  Romantic love and attachment styles......Page 541
   The investment model......Page 543
   How individuals initiate the end of a relationship......Page 545
   How individuals react when the other person initiates the end of the relationship......Page 547
  Introducing forgiveness......Page 548
   Models of the forgiveness process......Page 549
   The Enright model of forgiveness......Page 550
   The Worthington (pyramidal) model......Page 552
   Forgiveness and personality......Page 555
  Summary......Page 558
  Going further......Page 559
  Film and literature......Page 560
  Learning outcomes......Page 562
  Introduction......Page 563
   Authoritarianism......Page 564
   Conservatism......Page 567
   Theory of social dominance......Page 569
   The measurement of social dominance orientation......Page 571
   Right-wing attitudes and Eysenck’s theory of personality......Page 572
   Five-factor theory of personality and conservatism......Page 573
  Critical consideration of right-wing attitudes theory......Page 574
   Dimensions of religiosity......Page 576
   Religion and mental health......Page 578
   Religion and personality......Page 580
   Religion, personality, coping and mental health......Page 582
  Culture and personality......Page 584
   Basic and modal personality structure approach......Page 585
   National character......Page 587
   Personality and national culture: the work of Hofstede......Page 589
   Evolution and human behaviour......Page 593
   Characteristic adaptations......Page 594
   Life narratives and the challenge of modern identity......Page 595
   The differential role of culture......Page 596
  Summary......Page 598
  Critical thinking......Page 599
  Going further......Page 600
  Film and literature......Page 601
  Learning outcomes......Page 602
  The structure and measurement of well-being......Page 603
   Circumplex Theory of Affect: the structure of mood......Page 604
   Subjective and psychological well-being......Page 605
  Personality, mood and well-being......Page 610
  Personality disorders......Page 613
   General criteria for personality disorders: the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013)......Page 614
   Personality disorders: Cluster A: paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders......Page 616
   Personality disorders: Cluster B: antisocial, borderline, histrionic and narcissistic personality disorders......Page 618
   Personality disorders: Cluster C: avoidant, dependent and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders......Page 620
   Genetic, biological and environmental influences on personality disorders......Page 622
   Five-factor correlates of personality disorders......Page 626
   Issues with the conceptualisation and categorization of personality disorders......Page 627
  Summary......Page 628
  Connecting up......Page 629
  Film and literature......Page 630
  Learning outcomes......Page 632
  Introduction......Page 633
  Defining health......Page 634
  Personality, health and illness: how might they be linked?......Page 635
   Type A and Type B personality......Page 637
   Research on Type A/B personality......Page 638
   Further psychological research on Type A personality......Page 640
  Individual differences in the reaction to physical illness......Page 641
   Conceptualising stress......Page 642
   Anxiety defined......Page 644
  Concepts especially relevant to health psychology covered previously......Page 645
   Locus of control......Page 646
   Intelligence......Page 647
   Personality and well-being: the positive psychology approach......Page 648
  Final comments......Page 649
  Summary......Page 650
  Critical thinking......Page 651
  Going further......Page 652
  Film and literature......Page 653
  Learning outcomes......Page 654
  Types and uses of psychometric tests......Page 655
  Developing items for a psychometric test......Page 656
  Writing items for a psychometric test......Page 657
   Clarity of questions......Page 658
   Leading questions......Page 659
   Questions with reverse wording......Page 660
   Response formats......Page 661
   Instructions......Page 663
  Collecting the data......Page 664
   Internal reliability (internal consistency)......Page 665
   Using internal reliability to select items......Page 666
   Computing the scale (producing an overall score)......Page 669
   Test-retest reliability (reliability over time)......Page 671
  Validity......Page 673
   Factor analysis......Page 680
   Exploratory factor analysis......Page 681
   Confirmatory factor analysis......Page 688
  Final comments......Page 690
  Critical thinking......Page 693
  Going further......Page 694
  Film and literature......Page 695
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References and further reading......Page 714
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 Learning outcomes......Page 782
 The structure of arguments: premises and conclusions......Page 783
  Deductive versus inductive arguments......Page 784
  Fallacies of the undistributed middle......Page 785
  Argument directed at the person (argumentum ad hominem, ‘argument directed at the man’)......Page 786
  Appeal to emotion (argumentum ad misericordiam, ‘argument to pity’)......Page 787
  False dilemma......Page 788
 Going further......Page 789
 Learning outcomes......Page 790
  Correlation coefficients......Page 791
  Factor analysis......Page 792
  Tests of difference for two sets of scores......Page 795
 Meta-analysis......Page 796
 Effect size......Page 797
 Going further......Page 798
 Learning outcomes......Page 799
  Research studies have to comply with all legal requirements......Page 800
  Research participants......Page 801
 Ethical principles for conducting research with human participants (The British Psychological Society)......Page 802
 Going further......Page 803