Persistent organic pollutants

Persistent Organic Pollutants......Page 2
Contents......Page 8
Contributors......Page 14
1 Beyond the Stockholm Convention: An Introduction to Current Issues and Future Challenges in POPs Research......Page 16
References......Page 19
2.1 Introduction......Page 20
2.2 Sources......Page 22
2.3 Overview of Measurement Techniques......Page 23
2.4 Physicochemical Properties and Their Influence on Environmental Fate and Behaviour......Page 25
2.6 Environmental Levels – Present, Past and Future Temporal Trends......Page 27
2.7 Human Exposure – Magnitude and Relative Significance of Pathways......Page 30
References......Page 33
3.1.2 Fluorotelomer Alcohols (FTOHs)......Page 40
3.1.5 Fluorotelomer Carboxylic Acids/Fluorotelomer Carboxylates......Page 42
3.2.1 Electrochemical Fluorination......Page 43
3.2.2 Telomerization......Page 44
3.2.3 Production......Page 45
3.3.1 Toxicology of PFSAs and PFCAs......Page 46
3.3.2 Toxicology of FTOHs and FSAs......Page 47
3.4.1 The Influence of Fluorine......Page 48
3.4.2 Water Solubility......Page 49
3.4.4 Henry’s Law Constants......Page 52
3.4.6 Bioaccumulation......Page 53
3.4.7 Other Partitioning Properties......Page 54
3.5.1 Background Contamination......Page 55
3.5.3 Extraction and Clean-up Methods......Page 56
3.5.4 Analysis via Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry......Page 57
3.5.5 Analysis via Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry......Page 59
3.5.8 Analytical Challenges......Page 61
3.6 Human Exposure......Page 62
3.7.1 Sources of FSAs and FTOHs......Page 64
3.7.3 Sources of PFSAs and PFCAs to the Arctic......Page 65
3.8.1 Atmosphere......Page 66
3.8.2 Precipitation......Page 67
3.8.4 Surface Waters......Page 68
3.8.5 Sediments......Page 70
3.8.6 Wildlife......Page 71
3.8.7 Temporal Trends......Page 72
References......Page 73
4.1 Introduction......Page 86
4.2.1 Organochlorine Pesticides......Page 88
4.2.2 PCBs and Their Metabolites......Page 89
4.2.4 Polycyclic Musks......Page 92
4.2.5 Brominated Flame Retardants......Page 93
4.3.1 Measurement of Chiral POPs......Page 94
4.3.2 Metrics for Expressing Enantiomer Composition of POPs......Page 96
4.4 Chirality to Characterize Environmental Biochemical Processes......Page 97
4.4.1 Enantiomer-Specific Microbial Biotransformation of Chiral POPs......Page 98
4.4.2 Enantiomer-Specific Transformation and Processing of Chiral POPs by Biota......Page 108
4.5 Chirality to Quantify Rates of Biotransformation......Page 124
4.6.1 Air–Terrestrial Surface Exchange......Page 126
4.6.2 Air–Water Exchange......Page 130
4.7 Caveats in Using Chirality to Probe Biologically Mediated Environmental Processes......Page 131
4.8 Conclusions......Page 133
References......Page 134
5.1 Introduction......Page 152
5.2 Sources of POPs in Developing Countries......Page 153
5.2.1 Summary of the Main POP Chemicals......Page 154
5.2.2 Municipal Landfill Sites as Potential Sources of POPs to the Environment......Page 160
5.2.3 Dumping of Toxic Wastes as a Source of POPs in Developing Countries......Page 161
5.3 Levels of POPs in Developing Countries......Page 162
5.3.1 Air......Page 163
5.3.2 Butter......Page 165
5.3.4 Soils......Page 166
5.3.5 Bivalves......Page 169
5.3.6 Breast Milk......Page 170
5.4.1 Economic and Technical Problems......Page 174
5.4.3 Educational Problems......Page 175
References......Page 176
6.1 Introduction......Page 186
6.2 Cities in the 21st Century......Page 187
6.3 Urban Emission Sources......Page 188
6.4 Urban Emissions and Urban–Rural Gradients......Page 191
6.5 Chemical Mixtures in Urban Media......Page 202
6.6 Fate in Urban Areas......Page 203
6.7 Emissions and Environmental Degradation......Page 206
6.8.1 Transportation, Urban Sprawl and Emissions......Page 208
6.8.3 Trends in Stormwater Management......Page 210
6.9 Future Directions......Page 211
6.9.4 From Dilution to Reduction......Page 212
References......Page 213
7.1 Introduction......Page 224
7.2.2 Indoor Dust......Page 225
7.3.1 General Observations......Page 227
7.4 Relative Significance of Indoor Exposure......Page 232
7.5.1 Dust Ingestion Rates......Page 242
7.5.3 Biological Relevance of Samples: Within-room/building Spatial and Temporal Variability of Contamination......Page 243
7.6 International Differences in Indoor Contamination......Page 246
7.7 Concentrations in Different Microenvironment Categories......Page 247
7.9 Future Research Priorities......Page 249
References......Page 250
8.1 Introduction......Page 256
8.2 Conceptual Model of POPs......Page 257
8.2.1 Case Study: PCBs......Page 263
8.2.2 Case Study: Brominated Flame Retardants......Page 269
8.3 Discussion......Page 276
References......Page 277
Index......Page 286