Pediatric Neuroimaging

Pediatric Neuroimaging, 6e......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Dedication......Page 4
Contributors......Page 5
Preface......Page 7
Preface to the First Edition......Page 9
List of Disorders......Page 10
Contents......Page 21
Neonates......Page 25
Monitoring......Page 26
Contrast Media......Page 27
Ultrasound......Page 28
Computed Tomography......Page 29
Brain......Page 30
Vascular Imaging......Page 32
Spine......Page 33
Fetal MRI......Page 34
Abbreviated Protocols......Page 35
Diffusion......Page 36
Perfusion......Page 37
CSF Flow......Page 38
MR Spectroscopy......Page 39
Summary......Page 40
Embryology......Page 47
Imaging of the Preterm Brain (Premature Infant and Fetus)......Page 49
Grading of Brain Maturation in Premature Infants......Page 63
Anatomic MRI of Postnatal Brain Development......Page 68
T1-Weighted Images......Page 69
T2-Weighted Images......Page 71
Terminal Zones......Page 79
Milestones......Page 84
Normal Postnatal MR Development of the Corpus Callosum......Page 85
Normal MR Development of the Pituitary Gland......Page 89
The Cranial Fontanelles and Sutures......Page 90
Normal Development of Brain Mineralization......Page 91
Embryology......Page 92
CT of Spine Development......Page 93
MR of Spine Development......Page 94
The Normal MR Spectrum......Page 98
Peaks seen on long echo time (long TE) spectra......Page 99
Peaks seen on short echo time (short TE) spectra......Page 101
Changes in Spectra with Brain Maturation......Page 103
Diffusion Imaging and Tractography......Page 105
Diffusion Imaging of Brain Maturation......Page 106
Diffusion Tensor Imaging of Brain Maturation and the Connectome......Page 107
Tractography......Page 114
Perfusion Imaging......Page 115
Functional MR Imaging......Page 116
Introduction......Page 129
Imaging Techniques in Metabolic Disorders......Page 135
A Simple Pattern Approach to Metabolic Disease......Page 136
White Matter Disorders......Page 137
Deeper Analysis of Toxic/Metabolic/Inflammatory Diseases......Page 138
Age of Onset......Page 139
Seizures and metabolic epilepsy......Page 140
Stroke or stroke-like clinical presentation......Page 141
Metachromatic leukodystrophy......Page 142
Globoid cell leukodystrophy (Krabbe disease)......Page 143
Classic X-linked adrenal leukodystrophy/Adrenomyeloneuropathy/Acyl-CoA oxidase deficiency......Page 145
Leukoencephalopathy with vanishing white matter......Page 154
Giant axonal neuropathy......Page 157
Phenylketonuria......Page 158
Maple syrup urine disease......Page 159
Errors affecting cobalamin (vitamin B12) metabolism......Page 164
Methionine adenosyltransferase I/III deficiency......Page 165
X-Linked α-thalassemia/mental retardation syndrome......Page 166
Autosomal recessive spastic paraplegia with thin corpus callosum......Page 167
Sjögren-Larsson syndrome......Page 169
Brain injury from radiation and chemotherapy......Page 170
Occlusive vasculopathy secondary to radiation......Page 171
Neoplasia secondary to irradiation......Page 173
Small (“lacunar”) cysts......Page 175
White matter injury secondary to chemotherapeutic agents......Page 176
Megaloencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts......Page 178
MLC phenotypes......Page 179
Physiology/pathology/imaging......Page 180
Cystic leukoencephalopathy without megaloencephaly......Page 183
Aicardi-Goutières syndrome......Page 184
Cockayne syndrome......Page 185
Galactosemia......Page 186
Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease......Page 187
Hypomyelination with congenital cataracts......Page 191
Hypomyelination with atrophy of the basal ganglia and cerebellum......Page 192
Pol III–related leukodystrophies......Page 193
Hypomyelination with mutations of the multisynthetase complex......Page 194
Sialic acid storage diseases......Page 195
Fucosidosis......Page 196
3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme a lyase deficiency......Page 198
Congenital white matter hypoplasia/familial spastic paraplegia......Page 201
Multiple sclerosis......Page 202
Standard MR imaging in MS......Page 203
Neuromyelitis optica spectrum of disorders......Page 206
Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis......Page 209
Acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis......Page 212
Systemic lupus erythematosus......Page 213
Other autoimmune encephalopathies......Page 215
Differential diagnosis of autoimmune disorders......Page 217
Osmotic demyelination syndrome in childhood......Page 218
Solvent abuse......Page 219
Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation......Page 220
Pantothenate kinase–associated neuropathy (neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation 1, formerly Hallervorden-Spatz disease)......Page 221
Juvenile Huntington disease......Page 222
Isovaleric acidemia......Page 227
Creatine deficiency syndromes......Page 228
Infantile beriberi/Wernicke encephalopathy......Page 230
Hemolytic–Uremic syndrome......Page 232
Sydenham chorea......Page 233
Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis......Page 235
Infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy/NBIA2A/PLAN......Page 238
Niemann-Pick disease......Page 239
Rett syndrome......Page 240
Toxins......Page 241
Canavan Disease (Aspartoacylase Deficiency, Spongiform Leukodystrophy)......Page 242
Alexander Disease (Fibrinoid Leukodystrophy)......Page 246
Mucopolysaccharidoses......Page 249
Multiple sulfatase deficiency......Page 255
Peroxisomal biogenesis disorders......Page 256
Imaging differential diagnosis of peroxisomal biogenesis disorders......Page 259
D-Bifunctional protein deficiency......Page 260
Rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata......Page 261
Mitochondrial Disorders......Page 262
Components of the mitochondrial respiratory chain......Page 265
Disorders causing Leigh syndrome......Page 267
Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy with lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes......Page 275
Myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers......Page 276
Kearns-Sayre syndrome/progressive external ophthalmoplegia......Page 277
Mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy......Page 278
Complex I deficiency secondary to NUBPL mutation......Page 279
Trichopoliodystrophy (Menkes disease)......Page 281
Glutaric aciduria type I (glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency)......Page 283
Multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (glutaric aciduria type II)......Page 284
Nonspecific mitochondrial disorders......Page 286
Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency......Page 287
Disorders of the Urea Cycle and Ammonia......Page 288
Methylmalonic and Propionic Acidemias......Page 289
GM1 and GM2 (Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff Diseases) Gangliosidoses......Page 291
L-2-Hydroxyglutaric Aciduria......Page 294
Acute Necrotizing Encephalitis......Page 295
3-Methylglutaconic Aciduria......Page 299
Molybdenum Cofactor Deficiency......Page 302
Isolated Sulfite Oxidase Deficiency......Page 303
Toxin Ingestions......Page 305
Differentiation of Cerebellar Atrophy from Hypoplasia......Page 306
Cerebellar Ataxias......Page 309
Friedreich ataxia......Page 311
Ataxia with Oculomotor Apraxia, Types 1, 2, and 3......Page 312
Marinesco-Sjögren Syndrome......Page 313
Coenzyme Q10 deficiency......Page 314
Mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome 7......Page 315
Pontocerebellar Hypoplasias......Page 316
Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (Mevalonic Aciduria)......Page 319
Progressive Encephalopathy with Edema, Hypsarrhythmia, and Optic Atrophy (PEHO)......Page 320
Dentatorubral and Pallidoluysian Atrophy......Page 321
Cerebellar Degeneration from Kinesin Mutations......Page 322
Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis......Page 323
Spinocerebellar Ataxias......Page 324
Wolfram Syndrome......Page 325
X-linked Nonprogressive Congenital Cerebellar Hypoplasias and Dysgeneses......Page 326
Revesz Syndrome......Page 327
Basic Patterns of Brain Destruction......Page 371
Hydranencephaly......Page 372
Encephalomalacia......Page 374
Hypoxic–Ischemic–Inflammatory Brain Injury......Page 377
Localized Infarctions......Page 378
Manifestations and Causes of Infarctions in Children......Page 379
Choice of Radiologic Study in Pediatric Stroke......Page 383
Imaging Appearances of Arterial Infarctions in Children......Page 384
Infarction Secondary to Venous Occlusion......Page 391
Diffuse Ischemic or Inflammatory Brain Injury......Page 398
Severity of hypotension......Page 400
Maturity of the brain......Page 402
Neurologic sequelae of brain injury in the prematurely born neonate......Page 404
Morphological effects upon brains of prematurely born neonates......Page 405
Periventricular and intraventricular hemorrhage......Page 406
Periventricular venous infarctions and hemorrhages......Page 407
White matter injury......Page 408
Periventricular and intraventricular hemorrhage......Page 413
Periventricular hemorrhagic infarctions......Page 415
White matter injury of prematurity......Page 416
Cerebellar injury in premature neonates......Page 424
Profound hypotension or circulatory arrest in premature infants......Page 425
Imaging choices in premature neonates......Page 429
Parasagittal/watershed injury......Page 433
Profound hypotension......Page 441
Timing of appearance of imaging findings......Page 442
Effects of therapeutic hypothermia (brain cooling)......Page 453
Timing of studies......Page 454
Parenchymal and intraventricular hemorrhage in the term neonate......Page 455
Diffuse Ischemic Injury in Older Infants and Children......Page 462
CNS Injury in Multiple Pregnancies......Page 464
Ischemic Brain Injury in Multiple Pregnancies......Page 466
Neonatal Hypoglycemia......Page 471
Bilirubin Encephalopathy (Kernicterus)......Page 474
Hypernatremic Dehydration......Page 476
CNS Trauma in Infancy and Childhood......Page 478
Spinal Cord Injury......Page 479
Nerve Root and Brachial Plexus Injuries......Page 481
Extracranial birth trauma......Page 482
Skull Fractures......Page 483
Traumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage in the Newborn......Page 486
Tentorial laceration and occipital osteodiastasis......Page 487
Falx laceration and superficial cerebral vein rupture......Page 490
Postnatal Trauma......Page 492
Spinal Trauma......Page 495
Injuries in young children......Page 497
Adolescent injuries......Page 499
Torticollis/rotational deformities of C1-C2......Page 501
Back pain in children......Page 502
Extraparenchymal hematomas......Page 503
Subarachnoid hemorrhage......Page 507
Injury to the brain parenchyma......Page 510
Associated injuries......Page 516
Clinical, Mechanistic, and Epidemiological Aspects......Page 517
Choice of Radiological Exams......Page 518
Imaging Findings......Page 520
Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (Concussion)......Page 530
Concepts: Patterning, Pathways, and Basic Embryology......Page 564
Early Brain Development......Page 566
Anatomy and Embryology......Page 568
Spectrum of Commissural Abnormalities......Page 572
Associated Anomalies Secondary to Hemispheric Anomalies and Syndromes......Page 576
Anatomic Sequelae of Callosal Anomalies......Page 585
Callosal Agenesis with Interhemispheric Cyst......Page 588
Diagnosis of Callosal Agenesis/Dysgenesis in the Fetus......Page 590
Malformations of Cortical Development......Page 591
Development of the cerebral cortex......Page 592
Causes of malformations of cortical development......Page 598
Special imaging techniques for cortical malformations......Page 599
Microcephalies......Page 602
Actin- or tubulinopathies......Page 605
Cortical dysgenesis with abnormal proliferation (too many cells/abnormal cell types) but without neoplasia......Page 607
Cortical dysgenesis with normal brain size: focal cortical dysplasias......Page 610
Dysplasias with abnormal lamination but normal-appearing neurons (FCD 1a and 1b)......Page 611
Dysplasias with dysplastic neurons (also called focal transmantle cortical dysplasia, bottom of sulcus dysplasia, focal cortical dysplasia types IIa, IIb)......Page 612
Megaloencephaly: hemimegalencephaly (unilateral megalencephaly, HME) and dysplastic megalencephaly......Page 618
Cortical dysgenesis with abnormal cell proliferation and neoplasia, including dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumor (DNET), ganglioglioma, and gangliocytoma......Page 622
Periventricular heterotopia......Page 623
Focal subcortical heterotopia......Page 630
Anterior predominant, posterior predominant, or diffuse classic (four-layered) lissencephaly (LIS) and subcortical band heterotopia (SBH), associated with mutations of tubulin or microtubule-associated protein mutations......Page 632
Lissencephaly (the agyria-pachygyria complex)......Page 633
Lissencephaly due to mutations of actins, tubulins, and microtubule-associated proteins......Page 636
Band heterotopia/double cortex......Page 641
Lissencephaly with cerebellar hypoplasia......Page 642
Lissencephaly associated with ARX mutations......Page 643
Lissencephaly Secondary to Mutations in the Reelin (RELN) Signaling Pathway......Page 647
Malformations due to abnormal pial basement membrane formation: polymicrogyria, cobblestone malformations, tubulinopathies, and Zika-associated cortical malformations......Page 648
Patients with cobblestone malformations and congenital muscular dystrophies......Page 649
Walker-Warburg phenotype......Page 651
Fukuyama congenital muscular dystrophy phenotype......Page 653
Muscle–eye–brain phenotype......Page 654
GPR56-related cobblestone malformation (bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria)......Page 655
Occipital cobblestone malformations: laminin mutations......Page 661
Other congenital muscular dystrophy syndromes......Page 663
Polymicrogyria without congenital muscular dystrophy......Page 664
Imaging of polymicrogyria without congenital muscular dystrophy......Page 665
Bilateral Perisylvian Polymicrogyria......Page 667
Macrocephaly-Polymicrogyria Syndromes Associated with PI3K/AKT/MTOR Pathway Mutations......Page 668
Other Bilateral Polymicrogyria Syndromes......Page 670
Schizencephaly......Page 671
Dysgyria associated with tubulin mutations......Page 676
Holoprosencephaly......Page 677
Semilobar holoprosencephaly......Page 678
Lobar holoprosencephaly......Page 681
Syntelencephaly (Middle Interhemispheric Variant)......Page 682
Arrhinia/Arrhinencephaly......Page 685
Septooptic Dysplasia......Page 690
Anomalies of the Hypothalamic–Pituitary Axis......Page 694
Embryology......Page 695
Pituitary Dwarfism......Page 697
Kallmann Syndrome (Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism)......Page 700
Hypothalamic Dysgenesis and Adhesions......Page 701
Embryology of the Eye and Orbit......Page 702
Microphthalmia, anophthalmia, and colobomas......Page 705
Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous......Page 708
Retinopathy of prematurity......Page 709
Other congenital ocular anomalies......Page 710
Patterning......Page 711
Cell Proliferation and Migration......Page 712
Interactions of Brain and Meninges......Page 714
Normal Appearance of the Cerebellum and Brain Stem on MRI......Page 715
Disconnection syndromes......Page 717
Cerebellar hypoplasia......Page 718
Brainstem effects of dorsoventral patterning defects......Page 720
Rhombencephalosynapsis......Page 722
Mesenchymal–neuroepithelial signaling defects associated with mid-hindbrain malformations: the Dandy-Walker complex......Page 724
Lhermitte-Duclos disease/Cowden syndrome (dysplastic cerebellar gangliocytoma)......Page 728
Cerebellar Hypoplasia Due to CASK Mutations......Page 731
Malformations of neuronal migration that prominently affect the brain stem and cerebellum......Page 733
Joubert syndrome and related disorders with “molar tooth” malformation caused by mutation of ciliary proteins......Page 734
Congenital fibrosis of extraocular muscles......Page 738
Tectal enlargement......Page 739
Cerebellar nodular heterotopia with overlying dysgenesis......Page 740
Diffuse and unilateral cerebellar dysgenesis (cerebellar foliation anomalies/hypoplasia)......Page 741
Pontine tegmental cap dysplasia......Page 746
Medullary tegmental caps with callosal agenesis/hypogenesis......Page 747
Chiari I Deformity......Page 748
Chiari II Malformation......Page 753
Chiari III Malformations......Page 760
Cephaloceles and Other Calvarial and Skull Base Defects......Page 761
Causation and classification of cephaloceles......Page 762
Repaired cephaloceles......Page 763
Embryology......Page 767
Clinical and Imaging Aspects......Page 770
Parietal and atretic cephaloceles......Page 773
Nasopharyngeal cephaloceles......Page 779
Fontanelle dermoids and other calvarial masses of childhood......Page 782
Parietal Foramina and Enlarged Parietal Foramina......Page 784
Intracranial Lipomas......Page 787
Pathologic Characteristics......Page 790
Clinical Characteristics......Page 791
Imaging Characteristics......Page 793
Embyrology of the Bones of the Face and Skull......Page 799
Diagnosis of Craniosynostosis......Page 801
Radiology of synostosis......Page 804
Background......Page 805
Imaging of craniosynostosis syndromes......Page 807
Trisomy 21......Page 812
Trisomy 13......Page 818
Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome......Page 819
Gilbert Vézina and A. James Barkovich......Page 859
Neurofibromatosis Type 1......Page 860
Clinical Manifestations......Page 861
Optic Pathway Gliomas......Page 863
Other Gliomas and Tumor-Like Conditions......Page 868
White Matter Abnormalities and Characteristic Hyperintense T2 Lesions......Page 872
Vascular Dysplasia......Page 874
Cranial Nerve Tumors......Page 876
Neurofibromas and Plexiform Neurofibromas......Page 877
Scoliosis and Intramedullary Tumors......Page 878
Dural Dysplasia and Meningoceles......Page 880
Nerve Sheath and Other Soft Tissue Tumors......Page 881
Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor......Page 882
Clinical Manifestations......Page 884
Imaging of Intracranial Manifestations......Page 886
Imaging of Spinal Manifestations......Page 888
Clinical Manifestations......Page 890
Ocular Manifestations......Page 892
Subependymal Nodules......Page 893
Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytomas......Page 894
Cerebral Tubers (Hamartomas)......Page 898
White Matter Lesions......Page 901
Vascular Lesions......Page 903
Non-CNS Manifestations......Page 904
Intracranial Pathology......Page 905
Brain......Page 906
Eye Anomalies......Page 910
Ocular Manifestations......Page 911
Brain and Spinal Cord Manifestations......Page 912
Papillary Cystadenomas of the Endolymphatic Sac......Page 913
Visceral Manifestations......Page 914
Clinical Manifestations......Page 915
Pathological and Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 916
Clinical Manifestations......Page 917
Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 918
Clinical Manifestations......Page 921
Clinical Manifestations......Page 922
Neuropathological and Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 923
Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 924
Clinical Manifestations......Page 927
Neuroimaging Manifestations......Page 928
Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome......Page 930
Clinical Manifestations......Page 931
Ocular and Brain Manifestations......Page 932
Proteus Syndrome......Page 934
Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba Syndrome......Page 936
Incidence and Severity of Brain Tumors in Children......Page 955
Changing Concepts on the Biology of Brain Tumors......Page 956
Techniques of Imaging Pediatric Brain Tumors......Page 957
Imaging Characteristics Used to Identify Brain Tumors......Page 960
Posterior Fossa Tumors......Page 971
Molecular subgroups......Page 972
Clinical presentation......Page 973
Imaging studies......Page 974
Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor of Infancy and Childhood......Page 981
Embryonal Tumor with Multilayered Rosettes......Page 982
Cerebellar Astrocytoma......Page 983
Imaging studies......Page 985
Ependymomas......Page 987
Pathology......Page 988
Proton MR spectroscopy of medulloblastomas, cerebellar astrocytomas, and ependymomas......Page 996
General concepts......Page 997
Diffuse versus focal brainstem gliomas......Page 998
Pontine tumors......Page 1002
Midbrain tumors......Page 1005
Brain stem tumors associated with neurofibromatosis type 1......Page 1006
Differential diagnosis of brainstem tumors......Page 1008
Hemangioblastoma......Page 1009
Pathology......Page 1010
Imaging studies......Page 1011
Imaging studies......Page 1012
Dermoids and epidermoids: presentation and pathology......Page 1013
Dermoids......Page 1015
Enteric (enterogenous) cysts......Page 1016
Teratomas......Page 1017
Imaging studies......Page 1018
Meningiomas......Page 1021
Langerhans cell histiocytosis......Page 1022
Bone involvement in the face and head......Page 1023
Involvement of the brain......Page 1024
Ecchordosis physaliphora......Page 1026
Chordoma......Page 1027
Chondrosarcomas......Page 1030
Neuroblastoma......Page 1031
Ewing sarcoma......Page 1033
Sellar and Suprasellar Tumors......Page 1034
Craniopharyngioma......Page 1036
Suprasellar Pilocytic Astrocytomas (Optic–Hypothalamic Gliomas)......Page 1041
Pathology......Page 1042
Molecular genetics......Page 1043
Suprasellar Germ Cell Tumors......Page 1049
Imaging characteristics......Page 1050
Pituitary Adenomas......Page 1055
Hypothalamic hamartomas (hamartomas of the tuber cinereum)......Page 1060
Imaging findings......Page 1061
Langerhans cell histiocytosis......Page 1062
Rathke cleft cysts......Page 1067
Hemispheric Tumors......Page 1069
Pilocytic astrocytomas......Page 1070
Diffuse astrocytoma......Page 1072
High-grade astrocytomas......Page 1074
Oligodendrogliomas......Page 1077
Gliomatosis cerebri......Page 1081
Supratentorial Ependymomas......Page 1082
Hemispheric primitive neuroectodermal tumor......Page 1086
Hemispheric medulloepithelioma......Page 1089
Hemispheric atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor......Page 1090
Astroblastoma......Page 1093
Neuroglial hamartomas (glioneuronal heterotopia)......Page 1094
Plasma cell granulomas (inflammatory pseudotumors)......Page 1095
Primarily Cortical Tumors (Epilepsy-Associated Tumors)......Page 1096
Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumor......Page 1097
Gangliogliomas/Gangliocytomas......Page 1099
Desmoplastic Infantile Ganglioglioma (Desmoplastic Astrocytoma of Infancy)......Page 1103
Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma......Page 1104
Meningioangiomatosis......Page 1106
Low-Grade Gliomas of the Thalamus and Basal Ganglia......Page 1108
Bilateral thalamic LGG......Page 1111
High-Grade Gliomas of the Thalamus and Basal Ganglia......Page 1112
Thalamic Oligodendrogliomas......Page 1114
Germ Cell Tumors of the Basal Ganglia......Page 1115
Pineal Region Masses......Page 1118
Pineal and Bifocal Germinomas......Page 1121
Teratomas......Page 1125
Pineal Parenchymal Tumors......Page 1126
Pineal Region Gliomas......Page 1128
Papillary tumors of the pineal region......Page 1130
Pineal Dermoids and Epidermoids......Page 1131
Pineal Cysts......Page 1133
Subependymal Giant Cell Astrocytoma......Page 1134
Choroid plexus papilloma......Page 1135
Choroid plexus carcinoma......Page 1138
Choroid plexus villous hyperplasia......Page 1139
Other pediatric supratentorial ventricular tumors......Page 1141
Tumors of the meninges......Page 1145
Infantile myofibromatosis......Page 1146
Leukemia and lymphoma......Page 1147
Langerhans cell histiocytosis......Page 1148
Calvarial tumors......Page 1151
Brain Tumors in the First Year of Life......Page 1153
Radiation-Induced Tumors of the Central Nervous System......Page 1155
Retinoblastoma......Page 1156
Differential Diagnosis of Ocular Masses......Page 1159
Vascular Masses......Page 1162
Combined venolymphatic malformations: lymphatic malformations (lymphangiomas) and venous malformations (cavernous hemangiomas)......Page 1163
Orbital varices......Page 1166
Leukemia (granulocytic sarcoma, chloroma)......Page 1167
Plexiform neurofibroma......Page 1168
Masses of the Face and Neck......Page 1170
Branchial cleft cysts......Page 1172
Thymic cysts......Page 1175
Venolymphatic malformations......Page 1176
Infantile and congenital hemangiomas......Page 1181
Neurofibromas and schwannomas......Page 1182
Teratomas......Page 1184
Rhabdomyosarcomas/rhabdomyomas......Page 1187
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma......Page 1188
Cervical lymphadenitis......Page 1193
Neuroblastoma......Page 1195
Fibrous dysplasia of the skull base......Page 1196
Introduction......Page 1224
The ventricles......Page 1225
Vessels and choroid plexuses......Page 1226
Ependyma......Page 1227
Contribution of the brain parenchyma......Page 1228
Parenchymal absorption......Page 1229
CSF production and absorption mismatch......Page 1230
Consequences of a compliance decrease......Page 1231
Near-Wall Cilia-Related Flow......Page 1233
Clinical Presentation......Page 1234
MRI and mature hydrocephalic brain......Page 1235
MRI and immature hydrocephalic brain......Page 1237
MRI and fetal hydrocephalic brain......Page 1238
CT Scanning......Page 1239
Imaging Features of Hydrocephalus......Page 1241
The Ventricular System......Page 1242
The Extracerebral Spaces......Page 1251
Pathophysiology......Page 1254
Periventricular interstitial edema......Page 1255
Circulatory arrest......Page 1256
Specific Etiopathogenic Contexts......Page 1257
Aqueductal stenosis......Page 1258
Other malformative hydrocephalus......Page 1260
Acute ventricular obstructive hydrocephalus (high intracranial pressure)......Page 1261
Posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus......Page 1264
Extraventricular obstructive hydrocephalus......Page 1268
Pathophysiologic considerations......Page 1269
Venous hypertension......Page 1271
Acute nonobstructive hydrocephalus......Page 1274
Pathophysiologic considerations......Page 1280
Imaging hydrocephalus in the fetus......Page 1281
Myelomeningocele, Chiari II complex, and hydrocephalus in the fetus......Page 1284
Clinical Data......Page 1285
Ventriculoperitoneal Shunts......Page 1286
Early Follow-up: Response to Treatment......Page 1287
Shunt malfunction......Page 1290
Shunt infections......Page 1292
Subdural collections......Page 1293
Slit ventricle syndrome......Page 1296
Intracranial hypotension and craniocerebral disproportion......Page 1298
Conclusion......Page 1301
Gastrulation and Neurulation......Page 1311
Canalization and Retrogressive Differentiation......Page 1314
Formation of the Vertebral Column......Page 1315
Neurulation Anomalies......Page 1316
Clinical Manifestations of Spinal Anomalies......Page 1317
Counting Anomalous Vertebrae......Page 1318
Nondisjunction (Open Spinal Dysraphism: Myelocele and Myelomeningocele)......Page 1319
HemiOSD......Page 1322
Postoperative complications......Page 1323
The Chiari II malformation......Page 1327
Late/Incomplete Disjunction: Dorsal Dermal Sinuses and Sinus-Like Tracts (Also Considered as a Complex Spinal Dysraphism)......Page 1328
Pathology......Page 1329
Imaging......Page 1330
Late/Incomplete Disjunction: Cervical (Nonterminal) Myelocystocele and Cervical (Nonterminal) Myelocele (May Also Be Considered as CSD with a Subcutaneous Mass)......Page 1332
Concepts of Lipomas......Page 1335
Intradural Lipomas (Also Classified as a Simple Dysraphic State)......Page 1338
Description and presentation......Page 1340
Imaging characteristics......Page 1341
Associated malformations......Page 1344
Normal Conus Medullaris and Filum Terminale......Page 1345
The Terminal Ventricle......Page 1348
Anomalies of the Filum Terminale/Tight Filum Terminale (A Simple Spinal Dysraphism)......Page 1349
Syndrome of Caudal Regression (A Complex Spinal Dysraphism)......Page 1352
Terminal Myelocystocele (A Closed Spinal Dysraphism with a Subcutaneous Mass)......Page 1356
Anterior Sacral Meningocele......Page 1357
Sacrococcygeal Teratoma......Page 1358
Classification......Page 1361
Intraspinal Enteric Cysts (Neurenteric Cysts, Endodermal Cysts)......Page 1362
Definition......Page 1364
Embryology......Page 1365
Pathology and Imaging......Page 1366
Malformations of Unknown Origin......Page 1370
Segmental Spinal Dysgenesis (A Complex Spinal Dysraphism)......Page 1373
Dorsal Meningocele (A Closed Spinal Dysraphism with a Subcutaneous Mass)......Page 1374
Thoracic Lateral Meningocele......Page 1375
Lumbar Lateral Meningocele......Page 1376
Teratoma......Page 1377
Inclusion Cysts (Dermoids and Epidermoids)......Page 1379
Definition......Page 1381
Classification and Causes......Page 1382
Theories of Pathogenesis......Page 1385
Imaging......Page 1389
General Imaging Characteristics of Spinal Tumors......Page 1402
Clinical Presentation......Page 1403
Imaging......Page 1404
Extramedullary Tumors......Page 1409
CSF Dissemination of Intracranial Neoplasms......Page 1410
Aneurysmal Bone Cyst......Page 1412
Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis......Page 1414
Osteogenic Sarcoma......Page 1417
Chordoma......Page 1418
Osteoblastoma......Page 1419
Other Vertebral Tumors......Page 1420
Clinical and imaging characteristics......Page 1421
Classification......Page 1424
Extraspinal Tumors Invading the Epidural Space......Page 1425
Neuroblastoma......Page 1426
Leukemia and Lymphoma......Page 1429
Infantile Hemangioma......Page 1430
Extramedullary Hematopoiesis......Page 1431
Congenital Spinal Tumors......Page 1434
Introduction......Page 1440
General Concepts......Page 1441
Cytomegalovirus......Page 1442
Imaging......Page 1443
Herpes Simplex Virus: Congenital and Neonatal Infections......Page 1451
Imaging......Page 1452
Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus......Page 1454
Imaging......Page 1457
Rubella Virus......Page 1458
Imaging......Page 1461
Toxoplasma gondii......Page 1462
Imaging......Page 1463
Varicella-Zoster Virus......Page 1465
Zika Virus......Page 1466
Imaging......Page 1467
Parechovirus......Page 1468
Human Immunodeficiency Virus......Page 1469
Imaging......Page 1470
Disorders Mimicking Congenital Infections......Page 1472
Neonatal Meningitis......Page 1474
Meningitis in Infants, Children, and Adolescents......Page 1475
Pathophysiology of Meningitis......Page 1476
Imaging Manifestations of Meningitis......Page 1477
Effusions and empyemas......Page 1478
Hydrocephalus......Page 1482
Venous thrombosis/venous infarction......Page 1486
Tuberculous Meningitis......Page 1494
Imaging......Page 1497
Intracranial Complications of Sinusitis and Otomastoiditis......Page 1502
Bacterial Cerebritis......Page 1505
Brain Abscess......Page 1506
Imaging......Page 1508
Cat-Scratch Disease......Page 1514
Lyme Disease......Page 1515
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever......Page 1516
General Concepts......Page 1517
Herpesviruses......Page 1521
Imaging......Page 1523
Imaging......Page 1527
Epstein-Barr Virus......Page 1528
Imaging......Page 1529
Nonpolio Enteroviruses......Page 1530
Arthropod-Borne Viruses......Page 1531
Imaging......Page 1532
Influenza Virus......Page 1533
Imaging......Page 1534
Imaging......Page 1536
Chronic Viral Infections......Page 1537
Imaging......Page 1538
Imaging......Page 1539
Rasmussen Encephalitis......Page 1540
Imaging......Page 1541
Neonatal Candidiasis......Page 1543
Imaging......Page 1545
Coccidioidomycosis......Page 1546
Parasitic Infections......Page 1547
Neurocysticercosis......Page 1548
Imaging......Page 1549
Cerebral Toxocaral Disease......Page 1551
Sarcoidosis......Page 1556
Discitis and Osteomyelitis......Page 1557
Imaging......Page 1558
Imaging......Page 1560
Imaging......Page 1565
Introduction......Page 1584
Preprocedural Planning......Page 1585
Vascular Access......Page 1586
Endovascular Occlusion......Page 1587
Intracerebral Hemorrhage in Children......Page 1588
Description and Causes......Page 1589
Clinical Manifestations......Page 1590
Imaging Findings......Page 1591
Treatment......Page 1593
Description and Causes......Page 1596
Clinical Presentation and Imaging Findings......Page 1598
Treatment......Page 1603
Definition and Causes......Page 1609
Developmental Venous Anomalies......Page 1610
Extradural Vascular Malformations and Neoplasms Requiring Endovascular Treatment......Page 1611
Hemangioma......Page 1612
Venous and Lymphatic Malformations......Page 1613
Facial AVM......Page 1615
Epistaxis and Juvenile Angiofibroma......Page 1616
Treatment......Page 1618
Neuroimaging Findings......Page 1619
Treatment......Page 1623
Presentation......Page 1626
Intracranial Aneurysms......Page 1627
Saccular Aneurysms......Page 1628
Presentation and Diagnosis......Page 1629
Treatment......Page 1630
Traumatic Aneurysms......Page 1633
Spinal Cord Arteriovenous Malformations......Page 1635
Intramedullary Arteriovenous Malformations......Page 1636
Epidural Fistulas......Page 1641
Cerebral Vasculopathy in Childhood......Page 1644
Definition and Clinical Features......Page 1648
Radiology......Page 1649
Definition and Clinical Features......Page 1650
Radiology......Page 1651
Definition and Clinical Characteristics......Page 1655
Radiology......Page 1656
A......Page 1669
B......Page 1671
C......Page 1675
D......Page 1682
E......Page 1684
F......Page 1687
G......Page 1688
H......Page 1689
I......Page 1693
L......Page 1696
M......Page 1697
N......Page 1702
O......Page 1704
P......Page 1705
Q......Page 1707