Pathology: Oxidative Stress and Dietary Antioxidants

Front Cover
Pathology
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
I. Oxidative Stress and Pathology
	1 Free radicals: what they are and what they do
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Free radicals: general characteristics
		Oxidative chain reactions
		Selected free and nonfree radicals: characteristics and behavior
			Superoxide radical (O2•−)
			Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
			Hydroxyl radical (OH•)
			Alkoxyl (RO•) and peroxyl (ROO•) radicals
			Singlet oxygen (1O2)
			Ozone (O3)
			Hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
			Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide; NO•)
			Other reactive nitrogen species
		Sources of free radicals
			Mitochondria
			Peroxisomes
			Endoplasmic reticulum
		Oxidative stress
			Proteins
			Deoxyribonucleic acid
			Ribonucleic acid
			Lipids
		Free radicals in health and disease
		Conclusion
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		Acknowledgment
		References
	2 Oxidative stress in pathologies of male reproductive disorders
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Redox biology in male reproduction
		Oxidative stress and male factor infertility
			Sources of reactive oxygen species in the male reproductive tract
				Endogenous reactive oxygen species and antioxidants
					Leukocytes
					Immature spermatozoa
				Exogenous reactive oxygen species and antioxidants
					Radiation
					Lifestyle factors
					Toxins
			Oxidative stress in male reproductive pathology
				Genitourinary tract infections
				Systemic infections
				Autoimmune/inflammatory conditions
				Cryptorchidism and varicocele
				Other chronic diseases
				Oxidative stress in erectile dysfunction
				Oxidative stress in hypogonadism
			Mechanisms of oxidative stress-induced reproductive dysfunction
				Lipid peroxidation
				DNA integrity
				Mitochondrial dysfunction
				Apoptosis
		Assessment of oxidative stress in the male reproductive system
		Use of antioxidants in male infertility treatment
			Nutritional sources
			Supplementary antioxidants
			Phytonutrients
			Antioxidant paradox and reductive stress
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Conclusion
		Summary points
		References
	3 Oxidative stress and diabetic retinopathy
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Molecular mechanisms of diabetic retinopathy
		Oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species
			Nonenzymatic production of reactive oxygen species
			Enzymatic production of reactive oxygen species
		Relationship between oxidative stress and other biochemical pathways
			Enhanced polyol pathway
			Increased accumulation of advanced glycation end products
			Activation of protein kinase C
			Activation of hexosamine pathway
		Oxidative stress and structural and functional alterations in diabetic retinopathy
			Basement membrane thickening
			Alterations in retinal microvasculature
			Apoptosis of retinal cells
		Oxidative stress-related epigenetic modifications in diabetic retinopathy
			DNA methylation
			Histone modification
			MicroRNAs
			Sirtuin proteins
		Conclusion
		Summary points
		References
	4 Pathological bases of oxidative stress in the development of cardiovascular diseases
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Mitochondrial production of reactive species
		Role of oxidative stress in cardiovascular disease
			Ischemia and reperfusion
			Hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis
			Hypertension
				Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase
				Xanthine oxidase
				Uncoupled endothelial nitric oxide synthase
				Mitochondrial dysfunction in hypertension
			Inflammation
				Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	5 Pathological association between oxidative stress and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overview
		Oxidative stress
		The role of oxidative stress in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease pathogenesis
		Environmental reactive species and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
		Cellular reactive species and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
			Cellular reactive oxygen species
			Cellular reactive nitrogen species
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	6 Oxidative stress in sickle cell disease and emerging roles for antioxidants in treatment strategies
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Epidemiology and global burden of sickle cell disease
		Clinical manifestations of sickle cell disease and treatment options
		Pathophysiology of sickle cell disease
		Oxidative stress in sickle cell disease pathogenesis
			The physiology of red blood cells in coping with oxidative stress
			The pathology of sickle red blood cells due to increased oxidative stress
			Clinical consequences of oxidative stress in sickle cell disease
		Agents targeting antioxidant defense in sickle cell disease patients
		Future prospects
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	7 Nrf2 and oxidative stress
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Nrf2: function
		Nrf2: relation with disease
		Dietary compounds that could activate the Nrf2 and Nrf2/ARE pathway
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	8 Redox signaling and antioxidant defense in pathogenic microorganisms: a link to disease and putative therapy
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Oxidative stress: a short historical overview
		Redox signaling: definition and mechanisms
		A paradox
		Redox signaling as a determinant for pathogen elimination in the context of oxidative stress
		Redox signaling as a determinant for pathogen thriving in the context of oxidative stress
		The perception shift
		The intriguing dual role of antioxidants
		Association of reactive species and antioxidants with putative therapy against pathogens
		Future perspectives in therapy against pathogens
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	9 Paraoxonase 1 as antioxidant enzyme in children
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Paraoxonase 1: general characteristics
		Paraoxonase 1 in pediatric populations
		Conclusion
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	10 The regulation of intracellular redox homeostasis in cancer progression and its therapy
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
			Sources of intracellular ROS
			Regulation of intracellular ROS production
			Regulation in catabolism of intracellular ROS
		Role of oxidative stress in carcinogenesis
			Modulation of mitogen activated protein kinase
			Modulation of Keap1-Nrf2 pathway
			Modulation of FOXO transcription factors and p53
			Modulation of NF-κB
			Modulation of STAT family proteins
		Targeting oxidative stress in cancer therapeutics
			Antioxidant-mediated therapeutic strategy
			Upregulation of intracellular ROS levels
			Target antioxidants to decrease ROS scavenging capacity
		Conclusion
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
II. Antioxidants and Pathology
	11 Antioxidant and chelator cocktails to prevent oxidative stress under iron-overload conditions
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		The effects of the combination of an iron chelator with vitamin c on oxidative stress and iron status in iron-overloaded co...
		The effects of a combination of an iron chelator with silymarin on oxidative stress and iron status in iron-overloaded cond...
		The effects of a combination of an iron chelator with N-acetylcysteine on oxidative stress and iron status in iron-overload...
		The effects of a combination of an iron chelator with vitamin E on oxidative stress and iron status in iron-overloaded cond...
		The effects of the combination of an iron chelator with curcumin or idebenone on oxidative stress and iron status in iron-o...
		The effects of a combination of an iron chelator with other antioxidants and multiantioxidants on oxidative stress and iron...
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		Acknowledgments
		References
	12 Açaí (Euterpe oleracea Martius) as an antioxidant
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Açaí antioxidants
		Antioxidant activity of açaí: in vitro bioassays
		Antioxidant activity of açaí: animal model assays
		Antioxidant activity of açaí: human studies
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	13 Amaryllidaceae alkaloids and neuronal cell protection
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Neurodegenerative diseases and neuronal cell damage
		Oxidative stress related with neuronal cell damage
		Current pharmacotherapy of dementias (mainly Alzheimer’s disease)
			Galanthamine, the only drug of natural origin for the symptomatic treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
		Amaryllidaceae alkaloids
		Efficacy of amaryllidaceae alkaloids in oxidative stress and neuronal cell damage
		Conclusion
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		Acknowledgments
		References
	14 Anthocyanins and anthocyanin-rich food as antioxidants in bone pathology
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Oxidative stress and inflammation
		Bone physiology and pathology under oxidative stress
		Dietary anthocyanins as antioxidants
		Cell studies
			Berry extracts
			Black rice extract
			Dried plum
			Anthocyanin compounds
		Animal bone disease models
			Hormone deficiency model
			Inflammatory bone disease model
			Diet-induced obesity model
			Aging model
			Healthy animals
		Human studies
			Randomized controlled trials
			Epidemiologic studies
		Conclusion
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	15 Ascorbic acid as an antioxidant and applications to the central nervous system
		Introduction
		Ascorbic acid applications in neurodegenerative diseases
			Alzheimer’s disease
			Parkinson’s disease
			Multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
		Role of ascorbic acid in neuropsychiatric disorders
			Schizophrenia
			Major depressive disorder
			Bipolar disorder
			Anxiety disorders
		Conclusion
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Funding
		Summary points
		References
		Further reading
	16 Artichoke leaf extract and use in metabolic syndrome as an antioxidant
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Oxidative stress and metabolic syndrome
		Antioxidants and metabolic syndrome
		Artichoke leaf extract: bioactive compounds, pharmacokinetics, and safety
			Bioactive compounds
			Pharmacokinetics
			Safety
		Artichoke leaf extract, oxidative stress, and metabolic syndrome
		Conclusion
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	17 Bilberry anthocyanins as agents to address oxidative stress
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Other areas of pathology
		Chemistry of bilberry anthocyanins
		Why plants contain anthocyanins
		Why humans and animals must consume anthocyanins
		Bilberry anticancer activity
		Bilberry protective effect against chemotherapy and radiation therapy
		Bilberry’s importance in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease
		Bilberry’s importance in the prevention and treatment of diabetes
		Bilberry and macular degeneration (vision)
		Bilberry’s importance in preventing and curing dementia and Alzheimer’s disease
		Summary points
		Acknowledgments
		References
	18 Clitoria ternatea beverages and antioxidant usage
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Use of Clitoria ternatea flowers
		Bioactive components
		Antioxidant properties of Clitoria ternatea flowers
		Toxicity
		Human study
		Food uses
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Conclusions
		Summary points
		References
	19 Curcumin and related antioxidants: applications to tissue pathology
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Antiinflammatory activity
		Antitumoral properties
		Activity in myocardial diseases
		Antineurodegenerative effect
		As an antimicrobial agent
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Therapeutic challenges
		Conclusion and future perspectives
		Summary points
		References
	20 Dacryodes edulis: protective antioxidant effects on diabetes pathology
		Introduction
			Dacryodes edulis
		Phytochemistry of Dacryode edulis
			Preliminary phytochemistry
				Flavonoids
				Tannins
				Saponins
			Bioactive compounds of D. edulis
		Diabetic pathogenesis
			Hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress and diabetic complications
		Protective effects of D. edulis in diabetes pathology
			Carbohydrate digestion and absorption
			β-cell regeneration and insulin secretion
			Glucose uptake and utilization
			Lipid metabolism
			Antioxidant protective effect
				Scavenging of hyperglycemia-induced free radicals by D. edulis
				Improving endogenous antioxidant enzyme activity
		Proposed protective mechanism of diabetes pathology of D. edulis
		Conclusion
		Conflict of interests
		Acknowledgment
		References
	21 Protective role of epigallocatechin gallate, a dietary antioxidant against oxidative stress in various diseases
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
			What is oxidative stress?
			Reactive oxygen species
			Antioxidants
				Endogenous antioxidants
					Endogenous protein antioxidants
						Superoxide dismutases
						Catalase
						Glutathione peroxidase
					Endogenous nonprotein antioxidants
						Glutathione
						Alpha-lipoic acid
						Coenzyme Q
						Ferritin
						Uric acid
						Bilirubin
				Exogenous antioxidants
			Epigallocatechin gallate
				Pharmacological actions of epigallocatechin gallate
					Epigallocatechin gallate and cardiovascular diseases
					Epigallocatechin gallate and neurodegenerative disease
					Epigallocatechin gallate and cancer
					Epigallocatechin gallate and aging
		Summary points
		References
	22 Extra virgin olive oil polyphenols: biological properties and antioxidant activity
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Olive oil characteristic and extraction procedures that influence EVOO antioxidant properties
		Extra virgin olive oil polyphenols
			Chemistry
			Antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties
			Antioxidant activities
			Antioxidant activities of the main extra virgin olive oil polyphenols
				Hydroxytyrosol
				Oleuropein
				Tyrosol
				Oleocanthal
				Hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol glucuronides and sulfates
		Applications in other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	23 Ginkgo biloba extract as an antioxidant in nerve regeneration
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Peripheral nerve injury
		Neurodegeneration and neuroregeneration
		Intracellular signaling and angiogenesis in neuronal regeneration
		Oxidative stress in neurodegenerative processes
		Ginkgo biloba
			Neuroprotective and nerve regenerative mechanisms of action of Ginkgo biloba
			Ginkgo biloba in experimental neuronal models and diseases
				Cerebral failure
				Axonal restoration
				Alzheimer’s disease
				Parkinson’s disease
				Huntington’s disease
				Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
				Pheochromocytoma
				Glaucoma
				Multiple sclerosis
		Summary points
		References
	24 Lycopene as an antioxidant in human health and diseases
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Chemistry and sources
		Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability
		Antioxidant effects
		Cancer
		Cardiovascular diseases
		Hepatic and renal diseases
			Gastrointestinal diseases
			Neurodegenerative diseases
			Applications in other areas of pathology
		Conclusion
		Summary points
		References
	25 Mediterranean diet: the role of antioxidants in liver disease
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Applications in other areas of disease
		Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
			Definition
			Etiopathogenesis
			Treatment
		Alcoholic liver disease
			Definition
			Etiopathogenesis
			Epidemiology
			Treatment
			Malnutrition
		Conclusions
		Summary points
		References
	26 Melatonin, antioxidant capacity, and male reproductive function
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
			Oxidative stress and male reproduction
			The antioxidant system in the male reproductive tract
			Melatonin
			The antioxidative properties of melatonin
			Melatonin and the male reproductive system
			Melatonin: antioxidative properties and testicular tissue protection
			Melatonin, semen, and sperm quality
			Application in other areas of pathology
		Concluding remarks
		Summary points
		References
	27 Methylsulfonylmethane as an antioxidant and its use in pathology
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Overview of antioxidant effects
			Biophysical properties
			Antioxidant enzyme production/activity
			Redox hub
			Free radical scavenging
		Methylsulfonylmethane in oxidative stress pathology
			Inflammation
			Brain
			Cardiopulmonary
			Kidney
			Liver
			Gastrointestinal tract
			Musculoskeletal system and exercise
			Applications in other areas of pathology
		Conclusion
		Summary points
		References
	28 Improving antioxidant capacity of foods: adding mushroom powder to pasta
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Oxidative stress
		Major antioxidants of mushrooms
			Polysaccharides
			Phenolic compounds
				Contents of phenols in edible mushrooms
				The relationship of phenolic compound structures and antioxidant ability
			Vitamins
			Other antioxidants of mushrooms
		Antioxidant mechanisms in different models
			Cell lines model
			Evidence of the protective role of mushroom antioxidants on diseases using animal models
			How in vitro and in vivo methods are related to potential benefits derived from functioned food
		Applications in other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	29 Phenolics: therapeutic applications against oxidative injury in obesity and type 2 diabetes pathology
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Phenolics
			Classes of phenolics
		Phenolic acids
		Flavonoids
		Lignans and neolignans
		Tannins
		Oxidative stress: reactive species and antioxidants
		Obesity
			Oxidative stress and obesity
		Type 2 diabetes
			Oxidative stress and type 2 diabetes
		Therapeutic applications of phenolics and obesity
			Phenolics and type 2 diabetes
		Conclusion
		Conflict of interest
		Acknowledgment
		Summary points
		References
	30 Pistachio nut, its virgin oil, and their antioxidant and bioactive activities
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
			Pistachios are highly nutritious
			Consumption and uses of pistachios
			Reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress
		Applications to pathology
		Beneficial lipidic components
			Oleic and essential fatty acids of pistachios
			Other beneficial lipidic components: phospholipids and phytosterols
		Antioxidant vitamins (ACE)
			Carotenoids (provitamin A) exert chain-breaking activity and perform a range of functions in human health
			Pistachios are rich in different forms of tocopherols and tocotrienols (vitamin E)
			Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) reacts with several types of reactive oxygen species
		Antioxidant minerals (Se, Cu, Zn, Mn)
			Selenium proteins are well known for protecting cells from oxidative stress damage
			Copper, zinc, and manganese are also involved in the antioxidant cellular mechanism
		Polar phenolic compounds
			Pistachios serve as a good source of polar phenolics
			Antioxidant and biological activity of phenolics from pistachios
			Effect of roasting on the properties of pistachios
		Summary points
		References
		Further reading
	31 Sambucus ebulus L., antioxidants and potential in disease
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Traditional use
		Chemical composition
		Antioxidant potential
		Anticancer activity
		Other biological activities of Sambucus ebulus
			Antidiabetic activity
			Activity toward the inhibition of tyrosinase
			Antidepressant activity
		Application in other areas of pathology
		Conclusion
		Summary points
		Acknowledgment
		References
	32 Selenium usage and oxidative stress in Graves’ disease and Graves’ orbitopathy
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Applications to other areas of pathology
		Oxidative stress in Graves’ hyperthyroidism
		Oxidative stress in Graves’ orbitopathy
		Use of antioxidants in the management of Graves’ orbitopathy
		Selenium
		Use of selenium in Graves’ hyperthyroidism
		Use of selenium in Graves’ orbitopathy
		Summary points
		References
		Further reading
	33 Antioxidant potential of Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Applications in other areas of pathology
		Effectiveness against cancer
		Effectiveness against cariogenesis
		Effectiveness against atherosclerosis
		Effectiveness against hypertension
		Effectiveness against obesity, diabetes, and in blood glucose homeostasis
		Antioxidant potential against free radicals and stevia potential
		Conclusion and future perspective
		Summary points
		References
		Further reading
	34 Tea antioxidants in terms of phenolic and nonphenolic metabolites
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Oxidative stress associated pathogenesis
			A glance at free radicals, reactive species, and oxidative stress
			Oxidative stress in human biology
			Oxidative stress–induced cellular damage
			Oxidative stress–induced health hazards
			Metabolic syndrome
			Aging
			Cardiovascular diseases
			Infection
			Cancer
			Neurodegenerative disorders
		Role of antioxidants in oxidative stress–induced pathogenesis
			Enzymatic antioxidants
			Natural dietary antioxidants
			Phenolic and nonphenolic antioxidant metabolites
				Phenolic antioxidants
				Nonphenolic antioxidants
			Tea as a major source of dietary antioxidant
				A glance at tea
			Phenolic compounds in tea
			Nonphenolic compounds in tea
			Antioxidant activities of phenolic and nonphenolic metabolites in tea
		Conclusions
		Application in other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
	35 Thymoquinone: the active compound of black seed (Nigella sativa)
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Bioavailability and kinetics
		Thymoquinone and health
		Antioxidant activity
		Antidiabetic activity
		Anticancer activity
		Cardiovascular activity
		Effects on gastrointestinal system
		Hepatoprotective effects
		Nephroprotective activity
		Effects on pulmonary system
		Effects on the nervous system
		Antiinflammatory activity
		Applications in other areas of pathology
		Toxic effects of thymoquinone
		Conclusion
		Summary points
		References
	36 Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) use as an antioxidant in diabetes
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction: from oxidative stress to antioxidants acting on diabetes
		Antioxidants and diabetes mellitus
		Antioxidant activity in hyperglycemia and cardiomyopathy
		Smallanthus sonchifolius: origins and ethnobotanical characteristics
		The nutritional characteristics and phytochemical profile of Smallanthus sonchifolius
		Smallanthus sonchifolius nutrients and its interaction in diabetes
		Applications in other areas of pathology
		Summary points
		References
III. Techniques and Resources
	37 Screening procedures and tests for antioxidants
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
			Antioxidants and oxidative stress
			Oxidative stress and pathology
			Classification of antioxidants
			The problem of screening for antioxidants
			Testing for antioxidants
			Testing for electron donors
			New strategies to measure antioxidants
		Summary points
		References
	38 Recommended resources for pathology: oxidative stress and dietary antioxidants
		List of abbreviations
		Introduction
		Resources
		Acknowledgments
		Summary points
		References
Index
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