Parsing the Turing Test: Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer

Foreword......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 8
Introduction......Page 9
Contents......Page 17
About the Editors......Page 20
Part I Setting the Stage......Page 21
  1.1 Planning......Page 22
  1.2 The 1991 Competition......Page 26
  1.3 Speculations......Page 30
  Reference......Page 31
  2.1 Introduction......Page 32
  2.2 The Turing Machine......Page 33
  2.3 Intelligence and Intuition......Page 34
  2.4 Intelligent Machinery......Page 35
  2.5 The Imitation of Mind......Page 37
  2.6 After the Test......Page 39
  References......Page 41
  3.1 The Imitation Game......Page 42
  3.2 Critique of the New Problem......Page 46
  3.3 The Machines Concerned in the Game......Page 49
  3.4 Digital Computers♥......Page 52
  3.5 Universality of Digital Computers......Page 55
  3.6 Contrary Views on the Main Question......Page 60
   3.6.1 The Theological Objection......Page 62
   3.6.3 The Mathematical Objection......Page 64
   3.6.4 The Argument from Consciousness......Page 66
   3.6.5 Arguments from Various Disabilities......Page 69
   3.6.6 Lady Lovelace’s Objection......Page 72
   3.6.7 Argument from Continuity in the Nervous System......Page 74
   3.6.8 The Argument from Informality of Behaviour......Page 75
   3.6.9 The Argument from Extra-sensory Perception......Page 76
  3.7 Learning Machines♣......Page 77
 Chapter 4 Commentary on Turing’s “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”......Page 85
  References......Page 87
Part II The Ongoing Philosophical Debate......Page 89
  5.2 The Problem of Comprehending a Large Debate......Page 90
   5.3.1 Subarguments Show Major “Issue Areas” of the Debates......Page 91
  5.5 Questions not Covered in this Chapter......Page 92
  5.6 Wider Debates Covered in Other Maps......Page 93
  5.8 Understanding the Turing Test Itself......Page 94
   5.8.1 Does the Imitation Game Help Determine Whether Computers Can Think?......Page 97
    5.8.3.1 Assessment of the Debate So Far......Page 98
    5.8.4.1 Assessment of the Debate So Far......Page 99
   5.8.5 Have Any Computers Passed the Test?......Page 100
   5.9.1 Benefits of Argumentation Maps......Page 101
  Notes......Page 103
  References Cited in the Figures......Page 104
  6.1 Introduction......Page 106
  6.2 Validity of the Turing Test in Declarative Form......Page 107
   6.3.1 Standardized Tests as a First Hurdle......Page 110
   6.3.2 Irrationality......Page 112
   6.3.3 A Paradox for a Computer to Tackle......Page 115
   6.3.4 Literary Creativity......Page 117
   References......Page 118
 Chapter 7 Turing on the “Imitation Game”......Page 120
  References......Page 123
  8.1 The Classical Approach: Its Historical Background......Page 124
  8.2 The Classical Approach: Its Actual Performance......Page 128
  8.3 Turing’s Real Legacy......Page 130
  8.4 Reevaluating Turing’s Behavioral Test......Page 132
  References......Page 134
  9.1 Introduction: Turing and Machine Intelligence......Page 135
   9.2.2 Scoring the Test......Page 139
   9.2.4 Turing’s Principle......Page 140
   9.2.5 The Reasoning Behind Turing’s Principle......Page 141
   9.3.1 The Form of the Test......Page 142
   9.3.2 Did Turing Offer a Definition of ‘Thinking’?......Page 143
   9.4.1 Anthropocentrism......Page 144
   9.4.2 The Shannon–McCarthy Objection......Page 145
   9.4.3 The Chinese Room......Page 147
   9.4.4 Fiendish Expert Objections......Page 148
   9.4.5 Human Experience as Crucial: Associative Priming and Rating Games......Page 149
   9.4.6 Intelligent Computer or Lucky Computer?......Page 151
  9.5 Turing’s Predictions......Page 152
  References......Page 153
  10.1 Different Ways of Construing the Turing Test......Page 155
  10.2 From Behaviorism to Strong Artificial Intelligence......Page 158
  10.3 The Refutation of Strong AI and Its Philosophical Implications......Page 160
  10.4 Why Was Anyone Ever a Behaviorist?......Page 163
  10.5 Giving Up the Strong Turing Test......Page 164
  References......Page 166
 A Farewell to Formalism......Page 167
   11.1.1 Determinism in Physics and in Mathematics: The Laplacian World View......Page 168
   11.1.2 Formalism in Mathematics and Logic: A Trick of the 1920s......Page 170
    11.1.2.1 A Consequence in the Philosophy of Physics......Page 171
   11.1.3 Turing’s Contributions to the Formalist Viewpoint: Physical Determinism of the Formal Mind......Page 172
    11.1.3.1 Formal Modelling of Mental Processes......Page 173
    11.1.3.2 Physically Implemented Automata......Page 174
   11.1.4 The Formalist Interpretation of the Imitation Game......Page 175
  11.2 Anticlockwise Determinism: Some Arguments Against the Formalist Viewpoint......Page 177
   11.2.1 The Return of the Geometrical Repressed......Page 178
   11.2.2 Logical Undecidability in the Imitation Game......Page 179
   11.2.3 Physical Undecidability in an Imitation Game......Page 181
   11.2.4 Gender Difference in the Imitation Game......Page 182
  11.3 Conclusion......Page 183
  References......Page 184
Part III The New Methodological Debates......Page 186
  12.1 The Scope of the Contest......Page 187
  12.2 KISS......Page 189
  12.3 Selection of Finalists......Page 190
  12.4 The Communications Program......Page 191
  12.6 Judging......Page 192
  References......Page 193
 Chapter 13 The Anatomy of A.L.I.C.E.......Page 194
  13.1 Introduction......Page 195
  13.2 The Problem......Page 196
  13.3 The Psychiatrist......Page 197
  13.4 Politicians......Page 199
  13.5 Parties......Page 200
  13.6 The Professor......Page 201
  13.7 PNAMBIC......Page 202
  13.9 The Portal......Page 203
  13.10 Penguins2......Page 204
  13.11 Programs......Page 205
  13.12 Categories......Page 206
  13.13 Recursion......Page 207
  13.14 Context......Page 210
  13.16 Person......Page 212
  13.17 Graphmaster......Page 213
  13.18 Matching......Page 214
  13.19 Targeting......Page 215
  13.20 Defaults......Page 216
  13.21 Philosophers......Page 217
  13.22 Pretending......Page 218
  13.23 Consciousness......Page 220
  13.25 Conclusion......Page 221
  References......Page 222
 Towards Producing a Machine that Could Pass the Turing Test......Page 224
  14.1 Social Tests for Intelligence......Page 225
  14.2 The Impossibility of a Universal Intelligence......Page 227
  14.3 The Social Construction of Individual Human Intelligence......Page 229
   14.4.1 Free Will......Page 232
    14.4.1.1 Open-ended Strategy Evolution......Page 234
    14.4.1.2 Meta-evolution......Page 235
    14.4.1.3 Anticipatory Rationality......Page 236
    14.4.1.4 Coevolution......Page 237
    14.4.1.6 Putting it all Together......Page 238
   14.4.2 Emotion......Page 239
   14.4.3 Empathy and Self-modeling......Page 240
    14.4.3.2 Toward Producing Self-modeling Entities......Page 243
    14.4.3.3 Back to Empathy......Page 244
  14.5 Living with the Result......Page 245
  References......Page 246
  15.1 Introduction......Page 249
  15.2 The AI Program......Page 250
   15.3.1 CHATDISC Server-side Programs on BITNET......Page 252
   15.3.2 MGonz......Page 253
  15.4 The DRAKE Conversation......Page 254
   15.4.1 More on the Conversation......Page 257
   15.5.1 Remote Control......Page 258
   15.5.2 Attempts to Hide the System......Page 260
   15.6.1 Surprise......Page 261
   15.6.2 Sex......Page 263
    15.6.2.1 Jenny18......Page 264
   15.6.4 Real Human Responses......Page 266
   15.7.1 Not Necessary......Page 267
   15.7.2 Not Sufficient......Page 268
  15.8 The Future of AI Online......Page 269
   15.8.3 Good Science......Page 270
  References......Page 271
 Could We, Should We, Will We?......Page 273
  16.1 How Could we get a Machine to Pass the Turing Test?......Page 274
   16.1.1 Conversing in Natural Language......Page 275
   16.1.2 Having Lots of Factual Knowledge (and Being Able to Combine it Using Logic and Arithmetic)......Page 277
   16.1.3 Translogical Inference: When Good Human Brains Do Bad Things (and Turing Test Programs Better Do So, Too)......Page 279
  16.2 What Should We Get It To Do (or Not Do)?......Page 284
  16.3 What Have We Done So Far with Cyc?......Page 287
  16.4 What Will We Do to Close the Gap?......Page 291
  16.5 Conclusion......Page 293
  References......Page 294
 Toward the Automatic Discovery of a Universal Human Semantic-affective Hyperspace – A Possible Subcognitive Foundation of a Computer Program Able to Pass the Turing Test......Page 295
  17.1 Introduction......Page 296
  17.2 Subcognition and the Turing Test......Page 297
  17.3 Evolving Artificial Intelligence......Page 298
  17.4 The Minimum Intelligent Signal Test......Page 299
  17.5 Automating the Turing Test......Page 301
  17.6 Semantic Geometry......Page 303
  17.7 Affective Geometry......Page 306
  17.9 The Body......Page 308
  17.11 Conclusion......Page 309
  References......Page 311
 A Unified Protocol for Turing Testing......Page 312
   18.1.2 The Animals Concerned in the Game......Page 313
    18.1.3.3 The Argument from Consciousness......Page 314
   18.1.4 Summary: Humans Are Intelligent Animals......Page 315
   18.2.3 Evidence Regarding the Nature of the Turing Test......Page 316
   18.2.4 Findings Having Regard to the Turing Test......Page 320
   18.2.5 Reasoning and Explanation......Page 321
  18.3 Epilogue: Can People, or Machines, Think?......Page 327
  References......Page 328
  19.2 Indications......Page 330
  19.4 Recommendations......Page 331
  19.5 Implementation......Page 332
  References......Page 335
  20.1 The Loebner Prize......Page 336
   20.1.1 Conversation Simulation......Page 337
   20.1.2 How to Win the Turing Test by Cheating......Page 338
   20.2.1 A Universal Turing Machine Implementation......Page 340
   20.2.2 A Question of Time......Page 343
   20.2.3 Simulation or Duplication......Page 344
  20.3 The Guessing Game......Page 345
   20.3.2 Stochastic Language Modelling......Page 346
   20.3.3 Reasonable Unpredictability......Page 347
  20.4 The Child Machine......Page 348
   20.4.1 Verbal Behaviour......Page 349
   20.4.2 Building the Black Box......Page 350
   20.4.3 The Developmental Approach......Page 351
   20.4.4 The Turing Test Passed......Page 352
  20.5 The Turing Test......Page 353
  21.1 The Turing Test Is a Test of Behavior......Page 354
  21.2 Computational Behaviorism......Page 355
  21.3 Computational Linguistics Versus Computational Behaviorism......Page 356
  21.4 Observe Behavior......Page 357
  21.5 Index Behavior for Retrieval......Page 358
  21.6 Write Answers......Page 360
   21.7.1 Restricted Turing Tests......Page 363
   21.7.2 Extended Turing Tests......Page 364
  21.8 The Issue of Intelligence......Page 365
  References......Page 367
  22.1 Loebner Prize Contest Participation......Page 369
  22.2 Artful Intelligence as Friend......Page 370
  22.3 Algorithms......Page 372
  22.4 Data......Page 374
  22.6 Communications......Page 376
  22.7 Feature List......Page 377
  22.8 Programming Methods......Page 380
  22.9 Astrobot Ella — into the Cosmos......Page 383
  22.11 Current Projects......Page 384
  22.12 Ultimate Goals......Page 386
  23.1 Introduction......Page 387
  23.2 The Game, the Machine, and the Continuum......Page 389
  23.3 Between Randomness and Deterministic Chaos......Page 394
  23.4 Intermezzo 1 (Determinism and Knowledge)......Page 395
  23.5 Logical, Physical, and Biological Machines......Page 400
   23.6.1 Inter II.1......Page 402
   23.6.2 Inter II.2......Page 403
  23.7 Predictability and Decidability......Page 405
  23.8 Conclusion: Irreversible Versus Unrepeatable......Page 408
   23.9.1 Premise......Page 412
   23.9.2 Concerning Regimes of Physical Causality......Page 413
   23.9.3 Epistemological Consequences......Page 417
   23.9.4 Synthesis and Conclusion......Page 418
  References......Page 419
  24.1 Where is the “Back Door” in the Turing Test?......Page 422
  24.2 AI: A Moving Target......Page 423
  24.3 Facing the Interrogator......Page 424
  24.4 Julia’s Real Background......Page 425
   24.5.1 #10 Do Not Say Too Much......Page 429
   24.5.4 #7 Do Not Handle All Unrecognized Input the Same Way......Page 430
   24.5.5 #6 Do Not Be Fooled by the Judge’s Typos and Spelling Errors......Page 431
   24.5.7 #4 Know the Basics for Your Topic......Page 432
   24.5.9 #2 Do Not Repeat Yourself......Page 433
  24.6 Building Artificially Interesting Systems......Page 434
  24.7 Suggested Future Work......Page 435
  24.8 Guess What?......Page 436
  24.9 Summary......Page 437
  References......Page 438
   25.1.1 Introducing Trevor......Page 439
   25.2.2 The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence......Page 440
   25.2.3 Top-down Versus Bottom-up......Page 441
    25.2.4.2 The Realm of Chess......Page 442
    25.2.4.4 How Does Octavius Learn?......Page 443
    25.2.4.5 How Does Octavius “See the World”?......Page 445
  25.3 Objections to Artificial Intelligence......Page 446
   25.3.2 Dualism......Page 447
   25.3.4 Syntax is not Intrinsic to Physics and Has No Causal Powers......Page 448
   25.3.5 Gödel’s Theorem......Page 449
   25.4.1 Feedback......Page 450
   25.4.3 Artificial Life and Genetic Algorithms......Page 451
  25.5 Conclusion......Page 452
  References......Page 454
  26.1 Introduction......Page 455
  26.2 Categories of Judges......Page 456
  26.3 Logical Thinking......Page 457
  26.4 Sense of Humor......Page 458
  26.5 Language......Page 460
  26.7 Association Game......Page 461
  26.9 Common Sense......Page 462
  26.10 What Is a “Program-That-Looks-Just-Like-a-Human” and Does It Have Anything in Common With “I-Could-Talk-to-This-Bot-Forever”?......Page 463
  26.12 Context Understanding......Page 464
  26.13 Development of a Bot by Team......Page 465
  26.14 Conclusion......Page 466
  References......Page 467
Part IV Afterthoughts on Thinking Machines......Page 468
   27.1.2 Brief Description of the Turing Test......Page 469
   27.1.4 Definitions......Page 470
   27.1.5 The Procedure......Page 471
   27.2.1 The Significance of the Turing Test......Page 473
   27.2.2 Timetable and Technologies6......Page 474
  27.3 Why I Think I Will Win7......Page 478
  27.4 Response to Mitchell Kapor’s “Why I Think I Will Win”8......Page 481
  References......Page 483
  28.1 Background......Page 484
  28.3 Confederates......Page 485
  28.5 Transcript......Page 486
  28.6 Winners and Losers......Page 488
  28.8 Postscript......Page 489
  29.1 Introduction......Page 491
  29.2 Technology......Page 492
  29.3 Social Impact......Page 494
  29.4 The Cosmists......Page 497
  29.5 The Big Picture......Page 498
  29.6 Scientific Religion......Page 499
  29.7 Human Striving......Page 501
  29.8 Social Momentum......Page 502
  29.9 Military Momentum......Page 504
  29.10 The Terrans......Page 505
  29.11 Preserve the Human Species......Page 506
  29.12 Fear of Difference......Page 507
  29.13 Unpredictable Complexity......Page 508
  29.14 The Cyborgs......Page 510
  29.15 Conclusion......Page 512
Name Index......Page 514