Parasitology: An Integrated Approach

Parasitology......Page 3
Preface......Page 9
1.2 Animal associations......Page 17
1.2.1 Symbiosis......Page 18
1.2.3 Phoresis......Page 21
1.2.4 Mutualism......Page 22
1.2.5 Parasitism......Page 23
1.2.6 Intra-specific parasites......Page 24
1.2.7 Parasitoids......Page 25
1.2.8 The concept of harm......Page 26
1.3.1 Protozoa and helminths as hosts......Page 27
1.3.2 Classes of hosts for parasites......Page 28
1.4 The co-evolution of parasites and their hosts......Page 29
1.4.1 Evolutionary relationships between host and parasite......Page 30
1.4.2 Parasites and the evolution of sexual reproduction......Page 31
1.5 Parasitism as a ‘lifestyle’: advantages and limitations......Page 32
1.5.2 Main limitations of a parasitic life style......Page 33
1.6.1 Economic consequences of parasitic diseases of humans......Page 34
1.6.3 Estimating the costs of morbidity due to disease......Page 35
1.6.4 Economic consequences of parasitic diseases of wildlife......Page 36
1.7 Why parasitic diseases remain a problem......Page 37
1.8 Taxonomy......Page 40
1.8.1 The binomen system......Page 41
Questions......Page 43
2.2.1 Kingdom Protista......Page 44
2.3.1 Genus Entamoeba......Page 45
2.3.2 Other species of pathogenic amoebae......Page 49
2.4.1 Order Diplomonadida......Page 50
2.4.2 Order Trichomonadida......Page 53
2.5 Phylum Apicomplexa......Page 56
2.5.1 Genus Plasmodium......Page 58
2.5.2 Plasmodium life cycle......Page 59
2.5.3 Genus Theileria......Page 61
2.5.4 Genus Babesia......Page 62
2.6.1 Suborder Eimeriorina......Page 66
2.6.2 Isospora group......Page 67
2.6.3 Genus Cyclospora......Page 68
2.6.4 Family Sarcocystidae......Page 69
2.6.5 Genus Toxoplasma......Page 70
2.6.6 Genus Neospora......Page 74
2.6.7 Family Cryptosporidiidae......Page 76
2.7 Phylum Kinetoplastida......Page 78
2.7.1 Genus Leishmania......Page 79
2.7.2 Leishmania life cycle......Page 82
2.7.3 Genus Trypanosoma......Page 86
2.8 Phylum Chlorophyta......Page 97
2.8.1 Genus Prototheca......Page 98
2.9.1 Microsporidia......Page 99
Questions......Page 101
3.1 Introduction: invertebrate taxonomy......Page 102
3.3 Class Trematoda......Page 103
3.3.1 Family Fasciolidae......Page 105
3.3.2 Family Cathaemasiidae: Genus Ribeiroia......Page 109
3.3.3 Family Dicrocoeliidae......Page 111
3.3.4 Family Opisthorchiformes......Page 112
3.3.5 Family Paragonomidae......Page 114
3.3.6 Family Schistosomatidae......Page 115
3.4.1 Order Pseudophyllidea/Diphyllobothriidea......Page 119
3.4.2 Order Cyclophyllidea......Page 120
3.4.3 Family Taeniidae......Page 121
3.4.4 Family Anoplocephalidae......Page 126
3.5 Phylum Acanthocephala......Page 128
3.6 Phylum Nematoda (Nemata)......Page 130
3.6.1 Class Enoplea......Page 133
3.6.2 Class Rhabdita......Page 137
3.6.3 Family Onchocercidae......Page 145
3.6.4 Family Dracunculidae......Page 148
Questions......Page 151
4.1 Introduction......Page 153
4.2 Phylum Chelicerata......Page 154
4.2.1 Family Demodicidae......Page 155
4.2.2 Family Sarcoptidae......Page 156
4.2.3 Family Psoroptidae......Page 159
4.2.4 Suborder Ixodida......Page 160
4.2.5 Family Argasidae......Page 161
4.2.6 Family Ixodidae......Page 162
4.2.7 Tick paralysis......Page 163
4.3.1 Subclass Copepoda......Page 164
4.3.3 Subclass Branchiura......Page 166
4.3.4 Subclass Pentastomida – tongue worms......Page 167
4.4 Sub-phylum Hexapoda......Page 169
4.4.1 Order Phthiraptera (lice)......Page 171
4.4.2 Order Siphonaptera (fleas)......Page 175
4.4.4 Suborder Nematocera......Page 178
4.4.5 Suborder Brachycera......Page 179
4.4.6 Family Calliphoridae......Page 182
4.4.8 Genus Cochliomyia......Page 184
4.4.9 Genus Auchmeromyia......Page 185
4.4.11 Family Sarcophagidae......Page 186
4.4.12 Family Oestridae......Page 187
4.4.13 Subfamily Gasterophilinae......Page 189
4.4.14 Subfamily Hypodermatinae......Page 190
4.4.15 Subfamily Cuterebrinae......Page 192
4.4.16 Family Streblidae......Page 193
Questions......Page 194
5.1 Introduction......Page 196
5.2 Contaminative transmission......Page 197
5.3.1 Sexual transmission......Page 200
5.3.2 Transmission within the gametes......Page 203
5.3.3 Congenital transmission......Page 204
5.4 Autoinfection......Page 205
5.5 Nosocomial transmission......Page 206
5.6 Active parasite transmission......Page 207
5.7.1 Paratenic hosts......Page 208
5.7.2 Intermediate hosts......Page 209
5.7.3 Vectors......Page 210
5.8.1 Host identification......Page 212
5.8.2 The influence of host behaviour on parasite transmission......Page 213
5.9 Co-transmission and interactions between infectious agents......Page 215
5.10 How religion can influence parasite transmission......Page 218
5.11 The influence of war on parasite transmission......Page 220
5.12 The influence of parasites on host behaviour......Page 221
5.13.2 Pollution......Page 223
5.13.3 Global warming......Page 225
Questions......Page 227
6.1 Introduction......Page 228
6.2 Invertebrate immunity......Page 229
6.3.1 Innate immunity......Page 231
6.3.2 Adaptive immunity......Page 234
6.3.3 Cell-mediated immunity......Page 236
6.4.1 Physical factors......Page 237
6.4.2 Chemical and microbial factors......Page 238
6.4.3 The acute inflammatory response......Page 239
6.4.4 Cell-mediated immunity......Page 241
6.5 Adaptive immunity......Page 242
6.5.1 Avoiding the host immune response......Page 243
6.5.2 Depression of the immune system......Page 248
6.6 Immunity to malaria......Page 249
6.7 Schistosoma mansoni and Hepatitis C virus interactions......Page 253
6.8 HIV-AIDS and parasitic disease......Page 254
6.8.1 Parasites and the transmission of HIV......Page 255
6.8.3 Leishmania-HIV co-infections......Page 256
6.8.4 Malaria–HIV co-infections......Page 258
Questions......Page 259
7.2.1 Host factors that influence pathogenesis......Page 261
7.2.2 Parasite factors that influence pathogenesis......Page 262
7.3 Mechanisms by which parasites induce pathology......Page 263
7.3.1 Direct damage......Page 264
7.3.2 Indirect damage......Page 265
7.4.1 Abortion and obstetric pathology......Page 266
7.4.2 Anaemia......Page 267
7.4.4 Apoptosis......Page 269
7.4.5 Calcification......Page 270
7.4.6 Cancer......Page 271
7.4.7 Castration......Page 273
7.4.9 Diarrhoea......Page 274
7.4.10 Elephantiasis......Page 276
7.4.11 Fever......Page 277
7.4.12 Granulation and fibrosis......Page 278
7.4.13 Hyperplasia......Page 280
7.4.15 Inflammation and ulceration......Page 281
7.4.18 Pressure atrophy......Page 283
7.4.19 Psychological disturbance......Page 284
7.5.1 The bladder......Page 285
7.5.2 The brain......Page 286
7.5.3 The digestive system......Page 289
7.5.4 The genitalia......Page 292
7.5.5 The kidney......Page 293
7.5.6 The liver......Page 295
7.5.7 The lungs......Page 297
7.5.8 The skin......Page 300
7.5.9 The spleen......Page 304
7.6 Co-infections and pathogenesis......Page 305
Questions......Page 306
8.1 Introduction: the goodness of parasites?......Page 308
8.2.1 The hygiene hypothesis......Page 309
8.2.2 Type 1 diabetes mellitus......Page 310
8.2.3 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)......Page 312
8.3 The use of parasites to treat medical conditions......Page 313
8.3.1 Helminth therapy......Page 314
8.3.2 Larval therapy......Page 318
8.3.3 Leech therapy......Page 320
8.3.4 Malaria therapy (malariotherapy)......Page 321
8.4 Parasites as sources of novel pharmaceutically-active compounds......Page 324
8.5 Parasites as biological control agents......Page 325
8.5.1 Life cycle of the entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditis and Steinernema......Page 326
8.6 Parasites as forensic indicators......Page 328
Questions......Page 330
9.2 The importance of correct identification......Page 332
9.3 Properties of an ideal diagnostic test......Page 334
9.4 Isolation of parasites......Page 336
9.5 Identification from gross morphology......Page 339
9.5.1 Morphological identification of Entamoeba......Page 341
9.5.2 Morphological identification of Plasmodium and Babesia......Page 342
9.5.4 Morphological identification of filarial nematode infections......Page 343
9.7 Immunological techniques......Page 345
9.8 Molecular techniques......Page 347
9.9 Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs)......Page 350
9.9.1 Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria......Page 351
9.10 MALDI-TOF MS......Page 353
Questions......Page 354
10.2 Importance of understanding parasite life cycles for effective treatment and control......Page 355
10.3.1 The ideal antiparasitic drug......Page 357
10.3.2 Pharmaceutical drugs......Page 361
10.3.3 DNA/RNA technology......Page 363
10.3.4 Molecular chaperones (heat shock proteins)......Page 365
10.3.5 Nanotechnology......Page 366
10.3.6 Quantum dots......Page 368
10.3.7 Natural remedies......Page 369
10.3.8 Homeopathy......Page 371
10.4 Vaccines against parasitic diseases......Page 372
10.4.1 Attenuated vaccines......Page 374
10.4.3 Recombinant vaccines......Page 375
10.4.4 Toxoid vaccines......Page 376
10.4.5 DNA vaccines......Page 377
10.5.1 Eradication, elimination and control of parasitic diseases......Page 378
10.5.2 Education......Page 380
10.5.3 Environmental modification and cultural control......Page 381
10.5.4 Remote Sensing (RS) and GIS technology......Page 384
10.5.5 Treating the individual or the population......Page 385
10.5.6 Piggy-backing control programmes......Page 386
10.5.8 Role of governments, foundations, and aid organisations......Page 387
Questions......Page 389
References......Page 391
Index......Page 447
Color Plate......Page 459