Pangolins: Science, Society and Conservation

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Biodiversity of the World: Conservation
From Genes to Landscapes
Pangolins: Science, Society and Conservation
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Contents
	Part 1 Evolution, Phylogeny and Taxonomy
	Part 2 Biology, Ecology and Status
	Part 1 Law Enforcement and Regulation
	Part 2 Awareness Raising and Behavior Change
	Part 3 Site-Based Protection and Local Community Engagement
	Part 4 Ex Situ Conservation
	Part 5 Conservation Planning, Research and Finance
List of contributors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Section One: What is a Pangolin?
Part 1: Evolution, Phylogeny and Taxonomy
1 Evolution and morphology
	Introduction
	Pangolin supraordinal relationships
	Pangolin evolutionary history
	Morphological specializations of extant pangolins
	Conclusion
	References
2 Phylogeny and systematics
	Introduction
	Traditional ecological knowledge
	Ordinal taxonomy
	Family-level phylogeny
	Phylogeny of extant taxa: morphological evidence
	Phylogeny of extant taxa: molecular evidence
	Biogeographic scenario of diversification in extant pangolins
	Phylogeography and cryptic diversity in tropical Africa and Asia
	Taxonomy of extant taxa
		An updated classification of extant pangolins
			Family Manidae Gray, 1821
				Morphological diagnosis
			Subfamily Smutsiinae Gray, 1873 [large African pangolins]
				Morphological diagnosis
			Subfamily Phatagininae Gaubert, 2018 [small African pangolins]
				Morphological diagnosis
	Conclusion
	References
Part 2: Biology, Ecology and Status
3 The role of pangolins in ecosystems
	Introduction
	Predators of ants and termites
	Burrow creation
	Pangolins as prey and host species
	References
4 Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)
	Taxonomy
	Description
	Distribution
	Habitat
	Ecology
	Behavior
	Ontogeny and reproduction
	Population
	Status
	Threats
	References
5 Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata (Geoffroy, 1803)
	Taxonomy
	Description
	Distribution
	Habitat
	Ecology
	Behavior
	Ontogeny and reproduction
	Population
	Status
	Threats
	References
6 Sunda pangolin Manis javanica (Desmarest, 1822)
	Taxonomy
	Description
	Distribution
	Habitat
	Ecology
	Behavior
	Ontogeny and reproduction
	Population
	Status
	Threats
	References
7 Philippine pangolin Manis culionensis (de Elera, 1915)
	Taxonomy
	Description
	Distribution
	Habitat
	Ecology
	Behavior
	Ontogeny and reproduction
	Population
	Status
	Threats
	References
8 Black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla (Linnaeus, 1766)
	Taxonomy
	Description
	Distribution
	Habitat
	Ecology
	Behavior
	Ontogeny and reproduction
	Population
	Status
	Threats
	References
9 White-bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis (Rafinesque, 1820)
	Taxonomy
	Description
	Distribution
	Habitat
	Ecology
	Behavior
	Ontogeny and reproduction
	Population
	Status
	Threats
	References
10 Giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea (Illiger, 1815)
	Taxonomy
	Description
	Distribution
	Habitat
	Ecology
	Behavior
	Ontogeny and reproduction
	Population
	Status
	Threats
	References
11 Temminck’s pangolin Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832)
	Taxonomy
	Description
	Distribution
	Habitat
	Ecology
	Behavior
	Ontogeny and reproduction
	Population
	Status
	Threats
	References
Section Two: Cultural Significance, Use and Trade
12 Symbolism, myth and ritual in Africa and Asia
	Introduction
	Africa
		The Lele pangolin cult
		Pangolins as paradigms of symbolic significance
		Central and West African transformations
		Pangolin prediction and ritual sacrifice
		Pangolin products as medicine and magic
	Asia
		Asian alterities
		Pangolin prohibitions in Peninsular Malaysia
		Pangolin imagery in Indonesia
	Conclusion
	References
13 Early biogeographies and symbolic use of pangolins in Europe in the 16th–18th centuries
	Introduction
	Pangolin encounters: the pangoelling, allegoe, quogelo and tamach
	Scaly lizards in cabinets of curiosity
	Scaly lizards in books of natural history
	Classifying the scaly mammals
	Colonial monsters
	Conclusion
	References
14 Meat and medicine: historic and contemporary use in Asia
	Introduction
	South Asia
		Nutritional use
		Medicinal use
		Other uses
	Southeast Asia
		Nutritional use
		Medicinal use
		Other uses
	East Asia
		Nutritional use
		Medicinal use
		Other uses
	Impact of local and national use on pangolin populations
	Conclusion
	References
15 Bushmeat and beyond: historic and contemporary use in Africa
	Introduction
	West Africa
		Nutritional use
		Medicinal use
		Other uses
	Central Africa
		Nutritional use
		Medicinal use
		Other uses
	East Africa
		Nutritional use
		Medicinal use
		Other uses
	Southern Africa
		Nutritional use
		Medicinal use
		Other uses
	Impact of local and national use on pangolin populations
	Conclusion
	References
16 International trade and trafficking in pangolins, 1900–2019
	Introduction
	Early-mid 20th century trade, 1900–1970s
	Late 20th century trade, 1975–2000
	Trade and trafficking, 2000–19
		Trade reported to CITES (2001–16)
		Illegal international trade (2000–19)
	Impact of international trade and trafficking
	Drivers of contemporary international trafficking
	Addressing international pangolin trafficking
	References
Section Three: Conservation Solutions
Conservation Solutions
	Overview
Part 1: Law Enforcement and Regulation
17 Conserving pangolins through international and national regulation and effective law enforcement
	Introduction
	Pangolin protection in international law
	Other international laws
	National implementation of legislation
		Enforcement of legal provisions
		Enforcement at the higher level of organized and syndicated illegal trade
	Conclusion
	References
18 Combating the illegal pangolin trade - a law enforcement practitioner’s perspective
	Introduction
	A practitioner’s perspective
	What is “law enforcement?”
	The six elements of effective law enforcement
		1 Community engagement
		2 Improving the intelligence cycle
		3 Developing transparent human source management
		4 Rapid response (action on intel)
		5 Improving criminal investigations
		6 Improving prosecution and conviction rates
	Conclusions
	References
19 Addressing trade threats to pangolins in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and F...
	Introduction
	A history of pangolins in CITES
	Has CITES been effective for pangolins?
	What now for pangolins in CITES?
		Resolution Conf. 14.3 on CITES compliance procedures
		Article XIII of the convention
		Resolution Conf. 9.14 (Rev. CoP17) on Conservation of and trade in African and Asian rhinoceroses
		The Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS)
		Illegal trade reports
	Pulling it all together
	References
20 Understanding illegal trade in pangolins through forensics: applications in law enforcement
	Introduction
	Past, present and future methods
		Species identification
		Geographic origin
		Individual identification
		Kinship investigations
		Age determination
		Gender determination
	Coordinating and managing wildlife forensics at global and local scales
	Research and method development
	Developing pangolin forensic capacity
	Conclusion
	References
Part 2: Awareness Raising and Behavior Change
21 No longer a forgotten species: history, key events, and lessons learnt from the rise of pangolin awareness
	Introduction
	A movement begins
		The IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group
		World Pangolin Day
		The world’s most trafficked mammals
		Google Doodles
		CITES CoP17
		Documentaries
		Celebrity engagement
		A global network of local champions
	From awareness to action
	References
22 Changing consumer behavior for pangolin products
	Introduction
	Background and context regarding consumer demand for pangolins
	Challenges and considerations regarding demand reduction efforts
	Summary of insight into consumer demand in Asia
		Gaps and limitations
		China
			Pangolin meat
			Pangolin scales
			Consumers
			Pangolin wine
			Ornamental use
		Vietnam
			Pangolin meat
			Pangolin scales
			Pangolin wine
			Ornamental use
			Consumers
	Opportunities to reduce demand through behavior change
		Types of behavior to change
		Medicinal motivations
		“Emotional” motivations
		Existing experience
		Multiplicity of models
		Specific behavior change theories relevant to reducing “medicinal” demand
		Specific behavior change theories relevant to reducing “emotional” demand
		Relevant models to both medicinal and emotional motivations
	Conclusion
	References
Part 3: Site-Based Protection and Local Community Engagement
23 Engaging local communities in responses to illegal trade in pangolins: who, why and how?
	Introduction
	Why communities?
	How can conservation interventions support and engage communities?
		Strengthening the disincentives for illegal behavior
		Increasing incentives for conservation
		Decreasing the costs of living with wildlife
		Supporting alternative (non-wildlife) livelihoods
	It’s not what you do, it\'s the way that you do it: co-creating approaches built on equality and trust
	Conclusions
	References
24 Exploring community beliefs to reduce illegal wildlife trade using a theory of change approach
	Introduction
	Local Communities: First Line of Defence against Illegal Wildlife Trade (FLoD) – developing a methodology
	Lessons learned
	Conclusions
	References
25 Community conservation in Nepal – opportunities and challenges for pangolin conservation
	Introduction
	The history of conservation and forest management in Nepal
	Challenges to pangolin conservation in Nepal
		Absence of ecological data
		Poaching and trafficking of pangolins in Nepal
		Human–pangolin conflict
		Limited resources
	Opportunities for pangolin conservation in Nepal – the promise of community conservation
	Community-based pangolin conservation initiatives in Nepal
		Taplejung, Makwanpur, Chitwan and Gorkha
		Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Kavrepalanchowk and Sindhupalchowk
	The future of pangolin conservation in Nepal – opportunities and challenges
	References
26 The Sunda pangolin in Singapore: a multi-stakeholder approach to research and conservation
	Introduction
	Population
	Habitat use
	Ecology
	Threats
	Legislative protection and law enforcement
	Pioneering research and conservation efforts
	The Singapore Pangolin Working Group
	Ongoing conservation efforts
		In situ research on population size, distribution and habitat selection
			Camera trap surveys
			Tracking and monitoring of translocated pangolins
			Monitoring data on sightings and roadkill
			Diet
		Ex situ research
			Profiling and monitoring of rescued pangolins
			Genetics
		Conservation outreach and education
		Policy
	National Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 2018–2030
	Reflections on the work of the SPWG
	References
27 Holistic approaches to protecting a pangolin stronghold in Central Africa
	Introduction
	Background to Cameroon
	Pangolins in Cameroon
	The Dja Biosphere Reserve
	Conservation action in the DBR
		SMART
		Local community engagement
		UCL-ExCiteS
		Private sector engagement
		Wildlife monitoring
	Conclusions and recommendations
	References
Part 4: Ex Situ Conservation
28 Captive husbandry of pangolins: lessons and challenges
	Introduction
	Husbandry of pangolins worldwide
	Enclosure design and captive environment
		Building materials and design considerations
		Hospital enclosure for sick or injured pangolins
		Quarantine or short-term holding enclosure
		Long-term captive enclosures
	Social grouping
	Behavior monitoring, welfare and environmental enrichment
	Captive nutrition
		Diet components
			Chitin
			Soil
			Nutrient requirements
	Reproduction in captivity
	Hand-rearing orphaned pangolins
	Conclusion
	References
29 Veterinary health of pangolins
	Introduction
	Animal restraint
		Physical restraint
		Sedation and chemical restraint
		Anesthetic monitoring
	Physical examination
		Physiological variables
		Weight and body condition score
		Hydration status
		Scales and integument
		Eyes and nares
		Thoracic auscultation
		Oral cavity
		Musculoskeletal exam
		Sexing pangolins
	Diagnostics
		Blood biochemistry and hematology
		Urinalysis and coprological examination
		Imaging
	Health issues and infectious disease
		Infectious organisms and pangolins
		Health status in confiscated and rescued pangolins
		Respiratory disease
		Gastrointestinal disorders
		Disorders of the integument
		Trauma
		Opthalmologic disorders
		Organ dysfunction
	Therapeutics
		Fluid therapy
		Supplementary feeding
	Conclusions
	References
30 The rescue, rehabilitation and release of pangolins
	Introduction
	Rescue
	Rehabilitation
	Release
	Case studies
		A badly compromised Temminck’s pangolin
		Rehabilitation and release of a Temminck’s pangolin
		Sunda pangolin caught in a snare trap
	Conclusions
	References
31 Zoo engagement in pangolin conservation: contributions, opportunities, challenges, and the way forward
	Introduction
	Zoo engagement in conservation
	Zoo leadership in pangolin conservation
	Opportunities for increased zoo engagement in pangolin conservation
	Challenges and risks that impede zoo engagement in pangolin conservation
	The way forward
	References
32 Evaluating the impact of pangolin farming on conservation
	Introduction
	Will pangolin farming help or hinder the conservation of wild pangolins? Key variables to consider
	Theory of wildlife harvesting, legal supply and illegal trade
	Evaluating pangolin farming on current evidence
	Conclusion
	References
Part 5: Conservation Planning, Research and Finance
33 Conservation strategies and priority actions for pangolins
	Introduction
	Conservation strategies and action plans
	Conservation strategies for pangolins
	Conclusion
	References
34 Research needs for pangolins
	Introduction
	Trade, trafficking and policy
	Forensics
	Biology and ecology
	Genetics
	Husbandry and veterinary health
	Climate change
	Conclusion
	References
35 Developing robust ecological monitoring methodologies for pangolin conservation
	Introduction
	Framework for effective monitoring for conservation
	Designing studies to monitor pangolins
		Distribution and densities
			Confirming presence and estimating occupancy
			Estimating density
			Active and adaptive sampling
		Estimating population inputs and outputs
		Sampling methods for monitoring pangolins
	References
36 Conservation planning and PHVAs in Taiwan
	Introduction
	The 2004 PHVA
	Activities following the 2004 PHVA
	The 2017 PHVA
		Population modeling
		Conservation action plan
	Comparison of two PHVAs and lessons learned
	The future of pangolins in Taiwan
	References
37 Leveraging support for pangolin conservation and the potential of innovative finance
	Introduction
	Pangolins and challenges of the traditional conservation funding model
	The sector in context: the rise of natural capital approaches and conservation finance
	From responsible investing to conservation finance
	Outcomes-based financing: Rhino Impact Investment Project
		Theory of change
		Outcome metrics and key performance indicators
		Site selection and portfolio construction process
		Site investment readiness
	Opportunity along the impact spectrum
	Recommendations
	Conclusion
	References
38 Supporting pangolin conservation through tourism
	Introduction
	Methods
		Stated preferences
		Survey implementation
		Social media data
	Results
		Descriptive statistics
		Non-use and use values of pangolins
		Social media and pangolin distribution
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
Section Four: The Future
39 Taking pangolin conservation to scale
	Introduction
	Foundations for success
	Challenges
	Opportunities
	A bright future for pangolins?
	References
Index
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