Palmyrena: Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory from the Roman to the Early Islamic Period

Cover
Copyright Page
Contents Page
List of Figures
Preface
Introduction
Figure 1 La Palmyrène du nord-ouest. (PNO fig. 1).
	Figure 2 Village of Marzouga in the northern part of Jebel Chaar (PNO fig. 17).
	Figure 3 The sanctuary of Abgal at Kheurbet Semrine in the central part of Jebel Abyad (PNO fig. 5).
	Figure 4 Relief from Kheurbet Semrine. To the left the god Abgal, to the right the god Achar mounted on horses. (PNO 56; 146; pl. XXII, 1).
	Figure 5 The building at Rasm ech Chaar (PNO fig. 18).
	Figure 6 Concession area of the Syrian-Norwegian survey (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 7 Abandoned building at Wadi Giffa southeast of Palmyra (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 8 Dust storm in Palmyra May 2008 (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 9 Byzantine/Umayyad handles from Khaleed al-Ali (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 15 Topography of the Palmyrene hinterland (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 16 Drainage from the mountains north of Palmyra (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 17 The landscape at Wadi al-Butmiya 90 km southeast of Palmyra in late April 2006 (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 18 Present day precipitation in Syria (Gidske Andersen, University in Bergen).
	Figure 19 Vegetation in the protected area at Hwesys northwest of Palmyra in late April 2007 (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 20 Terebinth trees in the western part of Jebel Abu Riĝmen (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 21 Population of Terebinth trees in the eastern part of Jebel Abu Riĝmen (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 22 Distribution of springs, wells and cisterns in the southern part of the survey area (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 23 Distribution of settlements north of Palmyra (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 24 Distribution of settlements on Jebel Chaar (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 25 Site JC13 in the southern part of Jebel Chaar, visited by the author together with the Syrian-Canadian Oil Company (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 26 Distribution of settlement on Jebel Merah (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 29 Kheurbet el Fayéh on Jebel Bilaas (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 30 Kheurbet el Fayeh on Jebel Bilaas (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 31 Al-Bwêẓa (JR09) on Jebel Abu Riĝmen (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 32 Former Bedouin fields in Wadi Masaadé (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 33 Small wadi west of Palmyra after a short shower in the Jebel Abyad area (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 34 The surface of the bādiya on Jebel Chaar in the springtime (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 35 Displaced bitumen pavement northwest of Jebel Merah after heavy showers (J.C. Meyer)
	Figure 38 Crushing basin for oil production at site JC21 at Jebel Sorrate ech Chéfé (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 39 The oasis of Arak northeast of Palmyra (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 40 Qanat in Arak
	Figure 41 Qanat in Wadi al-Qseïbé west of Arak (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 42 At-Tarfa depression (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 43 The fort of al-Klejbijje (Palmyrena 135, fig. 32)
	Figure 44 The fort of al-Klejbijje
	Figure 45 Al-Karasi altars (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 46 Al-Karasi alters. Hand holding ears of corn
	Figure 47 The Harbaqah dam (J.C. Meyer)
	Figure 48 The catchment area behind the Harbaqah dam (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 49 Qasr al-Heir al Gharbi (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 50 Aqueduct north of the castle leading to the birket, water reservoir, and the garden (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 51 The Harbaqah dam (Poidebard 1934, pl. XXXIII).
	Figure 52 The Harbaqah fort (Poidebard 1934, pl. XXXII).
	Figure 53 The Harbaqah fort (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 54 The Harbaqah dam. The inner side of the wall (Jabbur 1995, 57, fig. 6).
	Figure 55 Distribution of forts and stations north of Palmyra (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 56 The ascent to the northern plateau from Wadi Abyad. In the background, the eastern side of Jebel Merah (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 57 Distribution of Aramaic inscriptions southeast of Palmyra and Safaitic inscriptions north and southeast of Palmyra (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 58 Inscription from Hawiyya bir Jalaʽut south of Palmyra (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 59 Safaitic inscription with drawing from Jebel Qurma in northeastern Jordan, showing camel attacked by two lions (Peter M.M.G. Akkermans).
	Figure 60 Sites in the Wadi Abyad area (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 61 Overview of Wadi Abyad, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 62 Overview of the southern part of Wadi Abyad from the ridge of Jebel Abyad, above al-Khaïrim (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 63 Al-Khaïrem area (J.C. Meyer, based on European Space Imaging).
	Figure 64 Al-Khaïrem. Tell, building and enclosure (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 65 Al-Khaïrem. Overview from the northwest (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 78 Awtayt. Blocks from monumental building in the spring area (Kjetil Bortheim).
	Figure 79  Awtayt. Blocks from monumental building on the plain below the spring area (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 80 Awtayt. Block from monumental building on the plain below the spring area (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 81 Awtayt. Roman cooking pot (2nd ‒ 3rd century) from the building in the spring area (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 82 Bir al-Dnejn. Corral on the plain below the spring area (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 83 Majouf area
	Figure 84 Majouf. The valley, looking W (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 85 Majouf. Plan of the building (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 86 Majouf. Fragment of terracotta water pipe (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 92 Quéchel. Well 2 (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 95 Quéchel. Qanat, looking E (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 96 Bir Jouâae’d (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 97 Bir Jouâae’d. Well (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 98 Wadi Abyad dam in the southern part of the Wadi Abyad basin (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 100 Wadi Abyad Basin. Traces of canals (J.C. Meyer, based on Corona Atlas of the Middle East).
	Figure 99 Wadi Abyad Basin. Traces of canals (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 105 Antaar. Fragment from burial tower (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 106 Antaar. Fragment from small aqueduct (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 107 Antaar. Inscription from burial tower, Museum of Palmyra (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 108 Jebel Abyad and Wadi al-Takara area (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 109 JA306. Wadi Kshebah
	Figure 110 JA306. Wadi Kshebah overview from the north (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 111 JA306. Wadi Kshebah. Tombs
	Figure 112 Valley Kshebah (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 113 Al-Mazraah (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 121 Tweihina (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 122 Tweihina. Overview, looking E (J. Krzywinski).
	Figure 123 Tweihina. The promontory with the fort
	Figure 124 Tweihina. View from the fort towards Wadi al-Takara (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 125 Tweihina. Plan of the fort (PNO 49, fig. 20).
	Figure 126 Tweihina. The southern rooms and the courtyard of the fort
	Figure 127 Tweihina. Building A in Wadi Masek (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 130 Tweihina. Shrine A and Tomb B (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 131 Tweihina. Tomb B (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 132 Tweihina. Shrine B, looking NE (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 133 Tweihina. Worked stones southeast of the promontory (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 134 Tweihina. Supply channel of cistern 3, looking S. In the background, the western supply channel of cistern 1 on the western side of Wadi Masek (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 135 Tweihina. Supply channel of cistern 3 cut into the rock (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 136 Tweihina. Inscription north of cistern 3 (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 137 Tweihina. ‘Sun disc’ cut into the rock south of cistern 3 (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 140 Shalala. The triangular plain (J.C. Meyer, based on European Space Imaging).
	Figure 141 Shalala. The northeastern part of the plain, looking SE. In the center the tell with buildings
	Figure 142 Shalala. Buildings on the plain (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 143 Shalala. Building A, B and C
	Figure 144 Shalala. Northwestern corner of building A. In the background the tell with building B (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 145 JA25. Hilltop structure (J.C. Meyer, based on European Space Imaging).
	Figure 146 JA26. Rock-cut tombs (N. Anfinset).
	Figure 147 Al-Matna. The triangular valley (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 150 Wadi al-Takara, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 151 Northern end of Wadi al-Takara with the entrance to Wadi al Masek and the watershed to the Plain of Jazal (J.C. Meyer)
	Figure 152 Wadi al-Takara S (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 153 Wadi al-Takara S. Building on hilltop and cistern 1, looking SW. In the background the Plain of Sahl Feïf al-Mazraâ (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 154 Wadi al-Takara S. Hilltop building
	Figure 155 Wadi al-Takara S. Elliptical structure (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 156 Wadi al-Takara S. Elliptical structure
	Figure 157 Al-Khoula
	Figure 158 Al-Khoula
	Figure 159 Al-Khoula. Wadi al-Khoula, looking SW. In the foreground, the outlet from the supply channels on the hilltop to Cistern 3 and 4 below. In the background Wadi al-Takara (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 160 Al-Khoula. Corral C
	Figure 161 Al-Khoula. Corral D (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 162 Al-Khoula. Corral E (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 163 WT42, cross-wadi wall (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 164 WT42, cross-wadi wall, looking NE (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 165 Wadi al-Takara N (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
	Figure 166 Wadi al-Takara N, looking E
	Figure 169 Wadi al-Takara N. Wall on the northern tip of the wadi island (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 170 Wadi al-Takara N. Iron fragments
	Figure 171 Wadi al-Takara N. Iron fragments (J.C. Meyer).
	Figure 172 Wadi al-Takara N. Islamic burial ground on the western bank of the wadi (J.C.Meyer).
	Figure 173 Bir Jazal. The triangular plain, looking NW (J.C. Meyer).
Survey
	Survey area, methodology and implementation
		Survey area and strategy
		Local knowledge
		The impact of modern activities in the survey area
Chronology of the sites
Topography and climate
Water supply
	Wells, springs and cisterns
		Cisterns and water harvesting systems
		Spring areas
		Wells
		Chronology of wells and cisterns
		Sources of water and settlement pattern
Villages and estates
	The food supply of Palmyra
		Distribution of villages north of Palmyra
		Conditions for agriculture and horticulture
		Evidence of agriculture and horticulture north of Palmyra
		Evidence of agriculture and horticulture east and west of Palmyra
		The Harbaqah Dam
		The food supply of Palmyra
Forts and stations
	Lines of communication
	Palmyrene control of the territory
		Khans or stations along the route to the north?
		Nomads in Palmyrene territory
Conclusion
Gazetteer of surveyed sites
	Wadi Abyad
		Al-Khaïrem
		Awtayt
		Bir al-Dnejn
		Majouf
		Ouéchel
		Bir Jouâae’d
		WA01-02. Canals and walls
		Antaar
	Jebel Abyad
		JA306. Wadi Kshebah
		JA378. Wadi Kshebah
		Valley Kshebar
		Al-Mazraah
		Tweihina (Tahoun al-Masek)
		Shalala
		JA25. Hilltop structure
		JA26
		Al-Matna
	Wadi al-Takara
		Al-Takara S
		Al-Khoula
		WT42, cross-wadi wall
		Al-Takara N
	Jazal
		Bir Jazal
	Jebel Chaar
		Madaba
	Wadi Jihar – Wadi Masaadé – Wadi Khabar
		Bir al-Arfa. Wadi Jihar
		WJ01. Wadi Jihar
		WJ071. Wadi Jihar
		Zer Dghelar. Wadi Jihar
		WJ098. Wadi Jihar
		WJ538. Wadi Jihar
		Shanaeh. Wadi Masaadé
		Khabar. Wadi Khabar
		Wadi Masaadé, WM01
	Jebel Merah
		JMW073
		Jebel Merah West
		JMW035
		JMW079
		JMW083
		JMW089
		JMW161
		JMW171. Cistern
		JMW172
		JME215
		JMW183 Cistern
		JMW190 Cistern
		JMW196 Cistern
		JMW198 Cistern
		JMW199. Cistern
		Jebel Merah East
		JME222
		JME202
		JME208. Cistern
		JME374
		JME209
		JME330
		JME320
		JME318
		JME304
		JME291
		JME298
		JME252
		JME231
		JME245. Cistern
		JME247. Cistern
		JME256. Cistern
		JME257
		JME232
		JME255. Cistern
		JME300
Figure 146. JA26. Rock-cut tombs (N. Anfinset).
Figure 147. Al-Matna. The triangular valley (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 148. Al-Matna. The triangular valley seen from the Hilltop (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 149. Al-Matna. Corral D (Nils Anfinset).
Figure 150. Wadi al-Takara, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 151. Northern end of Wadi al-Takara with the entrance to Wadi al Masek and the watershed to the Plain of Jazal (J.C. Meyer)
Figure 152. Wadi al-Takara S (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 153. Wadi al-Takara S. Building on hilltop and cistern 1, looking SW. In the background the Plain of Sahl Feïf al-Mazraâ (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 154. Wadi al-Takara S. Hilltop building
Figure 155. Wadi al-Takara S. Elliptical structure (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 156. Wadi al-Takara S. Elliptical structure
Figure 157. Al-Khoula
Figure 159. Al-Khoula. Wadi al-Khoula, looking SW. In the foreground, the outlet from the supply channels on the hilltop to Cistern 3 and 4 below. In the background Wadi al-Takara (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 160. Al-Khoula. Corral C
Figure 161. Al-Khoula. Corral D (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 162. Al-Khoula. Corral E (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 163. WT42, cross-wadi wall (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 164. WT42, cross-wadi wall, looking NE (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 165. Wadi al-Takara N (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 166. Wadi al-Takara N, looking E
Figure 167. Wadi al-Takara N. Fort (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 168. Wadi al-Takara N. Wall on the northern tip of the wadi island, looking N (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 169. Wadi al-Takara N. Wall on the northern tip of the wadi island (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 170. Wadi al-Takara N. Iron fragments
Figure 171. Wadi al-Takara N. Iron fragments (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 172. Wadi al-Takara N. Islamic burial ground on the western bank of the wadi (J.C.Meyer).
Figure 173. Bir Jazal. The triangular plain, looking NW (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 174. Kheurbet al-Alali Gharbun. Rock cut tombs and habitation
Figure 175. Kheurbet al-Alali Gharbun. Architectural fragments from sanctuary
Figure 176. Bir Jazal. The oasis (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 177. Bir Jazal. The oasis, looking NE (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 178. Bir Jazal. Well from the southern part of the oasis (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 179. Bir Jazal. The tell area (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 180. Bir Jazal. Walls in the southern part of the digging in the tell. To the left destruction layer with Charcoal
Figure 181. Bir Jazal. Digging in the tell (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 182. Bir Jazal. Oblong ash layers in the eastern face of the digging (J. Krzywinski).
Figure 183. Wadi Jihar, Wadi Masaadé and the southeastern spur of Jebel Chaar (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 184. Madaba (J.C. Meyer, based on European Space Imaging).
Figure 185. Madaba. Overview from the looking northwest  (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 186. Madaba. Area A and B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 187. Madaba. Area C (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 188. Madaba. Area D (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 189. Madaba. Area E (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 190. Madaba. Foot of unguentarium, 1st cent. BC/early 1st cent. AD (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 191. Bir al-Arfa (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 192. Bir al-Arfa. The cone-shaped mountain at the entrance to the valley. In the background Wadi Jihar, Jebel Chaar to the left, and the southwestern spur of Jebel Merah to the right (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 193. Bir al-Arfa. The center of the valley with Cistern 4 and the enclosure, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 194. Bir al-Arfa. Cistern 3 with broken-through semicircular dam (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 195. Bir al-Arfa. Cistern 7 with supply channels
Figure 196. Bir al-Arfa. Eastern side of Jebel al-Tarfa with buildings and cisterns (
Figure 197. Bir al-Arfa. Building A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 198. Bir al-Arfa. Building B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 199. WJ071. Circular structure (J.C. Meyer, based on European Space Imaging).
Figure 200. WJ098
Figure 201. WJ098. Building (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 202. WJ098. Wall east of the tell (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 203. WJ098. Fragment of tile
Figure 204. WJ242 (J.C. Meyer, Bing Maps, Microsoft).
Figure 205. Shanaeh (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 206. Shanaeh. Fort and shrine on the hilltop
Figure 207. Shanaeh. Northern wall of fort (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 208. Shanaeh. Overview of the wadi area seen from the hilltop (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 209. Shanaeh. Buildings and wells in the wadi area (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 210. Shanaeh. View towards the southeast and Wadi Jihar from the hilltop
Figure 211. Khabar
Figure 212. Khabar. Fort, buildings and wells (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 213. Khabar. Banks of the fort, looking SE (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 214. Khabar. Tell on the eastern side of Wadi Khabar (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 215. Khabar. Profile of the tell towards the wadi bed
Figure 216. Khabar. Remains of buildings in the tell
Figure 217. Khabar. Well 11 east of Wadi Khabar
Figure 218. Jebel Merah. The southern section of the mountain (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 219. Jebel Merah. The southern central section of the mountain (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 220. Jebel Merah. The northern central section of the mountain (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 221. Jebel Merah. The northern section of the mountain (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 222. Jebel Merah. The western shoulder looking S. To the left the ridge of the mountain, to the right the hills on the edge of the shoulder (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 223. Jebel Merah. A bowl-shaped valley at the western side at site JMW089 (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 224. Jebel Merah. The eastern shoulder at site JME209, looking SE (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 225. Jebel Merah. A bowl-shaped valley at the eastern site at site JME232 (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 226. View from the southern spur of Jebel Merah towards the northwestern part of Wadi Abyad and the northeastern corner of Jebel Abyad. To the right the watershed between Wadi Abyad and Wadi Jihar. In the foreground a Prehistoric cairn (T.P. Schou)
Figure 227. Jebel Merah. The landscape between the Jebel Merah plateau and Wadi Abyad (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 228. JMW073 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 229. JMW073. Building A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 230. JMW073. Building B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 231. JMW035 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 232. JMW035. Building A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 233. JMW035. Building B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 234. JMW035. Building C (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 235. JMW035. Building D (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 236. JMW035. Building E (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 237. JMW035. Cistern 1
Figure 238. JMW035. Cistern 1, looking S. In the background, the oblong hill on the edge of the shoulder with openings near building A towards the west (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 239. JMW079 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 240. JMW079. Building (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 241. JMW083
Figure 242. JMW083. Building A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 243. JMW083. Building B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 244. JMW083. Building B, looking NE. In the background the only passage across Jebel Merah, Tanîyet ez Zerr (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 245. JMW083. Glass bracelet (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 246. JMW089 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 247. JMW089. Overview of the western part of the site (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 248. JMW089. Overview of the eastern part of the site (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 249. JMW089. Building A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 250. JMW089. Building B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 251. JMW089. Building C (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 252. JMW089. Building C, lookinwg NW
Figure 253. JMW089. Building D (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 254. JMW089. Building D, looking SW (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 255. JMW089. Cross-wadi wall A, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 256. JMW089. Cross-wadi wall A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 257. JMW089. Cross-wadi wall B, looking N (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 258. JMW089. Cross-wadi wall C, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 259. JMW089. Cross-wadi wall D, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 260. JMW089. Safaitic inscription (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 261. JMW089. Cistern 1, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 262. JMW161 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 263. JMW161. Building A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 264. JMW161. Building B
Figure 265. JMW172 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 266. JME215 and JME222 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 267. JME215. Building A, looking N. In the background Cistern 1 and 2
Figure 268. JME215. Building A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 269. JME222. Building A and B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 270. JME202 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 272. JME202. Cistern 1, looking SE
Figure 274. JME374
Figure 275. JME374. Building on hilltop, looking N. In the background a Prehistoric cairn
Figure 276. JME374. Palmyrene inscription
Figure 277. JME209 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 278. JME209. Building A, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 279. JME209. Building A (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 280. JME209. Building C (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 281. JME330 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 282. JME330. Buildings in the tell area
Figure 283. JME330. Building A, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 284. JME320 (bottom), JME318 (left) and JME304 (top) (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 285. JME320. Building (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 286. JME304. Building A and B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 287. JME298. Building (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 288. JME291 (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 289. JME291. Cistern 5, looking S (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 290. JME252 (bottom) and JME263 (Top) (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 291. JME263. Building (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 292. JME257. Stone circles, looking SE (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 293. JME231 (right) and JME232 (left) (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 294. JME231. Bank north of the wadi, looking NE. To the left the entrance to the cistern (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 295. JME231. Bank south of the wadi, looking S (J.C. Meyer)
Figure 296. JME231. Cistern west of the northern bank, looking W
Figure 297. JME232 area, looking N from building A
Figure 298. JME232. Building A
Figure 299. JME232. Building B (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 300. JME232. Building C and Wall D (J.C. Meyer).
North of Jebel Chaar
	Khaleed al-Ali
		Fasida
North of Jebel Chaar
	Khaleed al-Ali
		Fasida
Figure 301. The area north of Jebel Chaar (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 302. Khaleed al-Ali (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 303. Khaleed al-Ali. The tell, looking northwest
Figure 304. Khaleed al-Ali. The tell (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 305. Khaleed al-Ali. Diggings in the southern part of the tell disclosing courses of mudbricks
Figure 306. Khaleed al-Ali. Marble blocks in digging B in the northern part of the tell
Figure 307. Khaleed al-Ali. Mosaic stones from digging D (J.C. Meyer).
Figure 308. Fasida. (J.C. Meyer, based on Google Earth).
Figure 309. Fasida (J.C. Meyer).
Appendix
Appendix
Safaitic inscriptions mentioning Tadmur
Safaitic inscriptions mentioning Tadmur
Bibliography
Bibliography
	Abbreviations
		Bibliography