Origins of the Earth, Moon, and Life. An Interdisciplinary Approach

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	Origins of the Earth,Moon, and Life
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	Copyright
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	Dedication
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	Preface
		References
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	1 - Origin of Elements
		Origin of Elements
			1.2 Types of Radioactive Decays
			1.3 Three Forces Sustain a Star in a Fine Balance
			1.4 Element Synthesis in Stars
			1.5 Element Syntheses in Other Processes
			1.6 Type Ia Supernova
			1.7 The Oldest Galaxy Ever Found
			1.8 The Oldest Star Found So Far
			1.9 Element Syntheses by a Short-Duration γ-Ray Burst
			References
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	2 - Formation of the Proto-Earth in the Solar Nebula
		2.1 Evolution of Molecular Clouds to the Solar Nebula
		2.2 From the Presolar Nebula to the Solar System
		2.3 Age Dating by Radioactive Isotopes
		2.4 Model Age
		2.5 Extinct Nuclides
		2.6 The 182Hf–182W Isotope System
		2.7 Mass Spectrometry
			2.7.1 Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry and Negative Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry
			2.7.2 Isotope Dilution Method
			2.7.3 Q-Pole Type Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
			2.7.4 Multicollector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
		2.8 Formation of Gas Giant Planets and Asteroids: The Nice Model
		2.9 The Late Heavy Bombardment in the Nice Model
		2.10 The Grand Tack Model: The Resonance of Jupiter and Saturn
		2.11 Formation of Inner Planets in the Grand Tack Model
		2.12 Inconsistency Between Our Solar System and Exosolar Systems Found by the Kepler Program
		2.13 Observation of Planets and Asteroid Belts
			2.13.1 The Planetary System
			2.13.2 Observation of the Asteroids
			2.13.3 Observation of the Asteroids From Space
			2.13.4 Sample Return Program From an Asteroid
		References
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	3 - The Giant Impact Made the Present Earth1397059140Moon System
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 History of a Giant Impact Model
		3.3 Apollo Program: Landing on the Moon and Sampling Moon Rocks
			3.3.1 The Apollo Program
			3.3.2 Rocks From the Moon
		3.4 Similarity Between Chemical Compositions of the Moon and Earth’s Mantle
		3.5 Constraints From High Field Strength Element
		3.6 Mass Fractionation of Oxygen Isotopic Ratio of 18O/16O
		3.7 Mass Fractionation of Three Oxygen Isotope Ratios
			3.7.1 Definition of Three Oxygen Isotope Mass Fractionation
			3.7.2 Mass Fractionation Laws
			3.7.3 Application of Three Oxygen Isotope Fractionation to the Earth–Moon System
			3.7. 4Δ17O—A New Oxygen Isotope Ratio Presentation
			3.7.5 Lunar Oxygen Isotopic Ratios
			3.7.6 Development of Accuracy of Oxygen Isotopic Ratios
			3.7.7 The Latest Oxygen Isotopic Evidence
		3.8 Constraints From Stable Isotope Ratios for the Origin of the Present Earth and Moon
			3.8.1 The δ7Li Values
			3.8.2 The δ26Mg Values
			3.8.3 The δ30Si Values
			3.8.4 The δ41K Values
			3.8.5 The δ56Fe Values
			3.8.6 The ε54Cr Values
			3.8.7 The ε50Ti Values
		3.9 Astrophysical Models for the Giant Impact
			3.9.1 Basic Simulations of the Giant Impacts
			3.9.2 Cosmochemical Constraints of the Giant Impact
			3.9.3 The Standard Model
			3.9.4 The Latest Model Proving the Similarity Between the Proto-Earth and Theia (The Impacter)
		References
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	4 - What Is the Late Veneer, and Why Is It Necessary
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Constraints From Highly Siderophile Elements and Platinum Group Elements
			4.2.1 Primitive Upper Mantle
			4.2.2 Comparison of PUM With the Moon
			4.2.3 HSE Depletion of PUM
		4.3 Constraints for the Late Veneer From W Isotopes
			4.3.1 Problems in Early Works, and Solutions
			4.3.2 Lunar W Isotopic Ratios
			4.3.3 Percentage of the Late Veneer From the Lunar W Isotopic Ratio
			4.3.4 After the Giant Impact
		4.4 Constraints on the Late Veneer From Oxygen Isotope Ratios
		4.5 Statistics
			4.5.1 Average and Standard Deviation
			4.5.2 The Normal Population
			4.5.3 The Standard Error
			4.5.4 ISO Suggestion
			4.5.5 Variance, Covariance, and Correlation Coefficient
			4.5.6 Weighted Average, Variance, and Covariances
			4.5.7 The Least Square Method
		References
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	5 - The Age of the Moon
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Age of FANs
		5.3 Zircon Ages
		5.4 Age of KREEP Rocks
		5.5 Age of Mg-Suite Rocks
		5.6 Age of the Moon Mantle Differentiation by the 146Sm-142Nd Method
		5.7 Implication of the Lunar Age
		References
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	6 - Age of the Earth From Geological Records Remaining on the Earth Surface
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Core Formation Age From Hf–W Systematics
		6.3 U–Pb Age of the Earth
		6.4 Age of the Earth’s Atmosphere From I–Pu–Xe Systematics
			6.4.1 Terrestrial Xenology
			6.4.2 Discovery of New Components of Xe
			6.4.3 Early Heterogeneity Kept in the Icelandic OIB Source
		6.5 Application of 142Nd Isotope Systematics to the Oldest Crusts on Earth
			6.5.1 Application of 146,147Sm–142,143Nd Systematics to West Greenland Samples
			6.5.2 Application of the 146,147Sm–142,143Nd and 176Lu–176Hf Systematics to West Greenland Samples
			6.5.3 Application of the 146,147Sm–142,143Nd Systematics to the Ujaraaluk Unit in the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, Canada
		6.6 Oldest Zircon on Earth
		6.7 First Water on the Early Earth From Oxygen Isotopic Data of Zircon by HR-SIMS
		References
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	7 - Life on Mars From the Martian Meteorite?
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Fundamental Knowledge of Astrobiology
			7.2.1 Amino Acids
			7.2.2 Proteins
			7.2.3 Purines and Pyrimidines
			7.2.4 Hydrogen Bond
			7.2.5 Helix and Double Helix
			7.2.6 Hydroxyl Alcohols, Hydroxyl Aldehydes, and Hydroxyl Ketones With Linear and Branched Structures
			7.2.7 High Energetic Light on a Planet and Life
			7.2.8 Magnetic Field of a Planet and Life
		7.3 Report for the Discovery of Life in the Martian Meteorite ALH84001
		7.4 Detailed Explanation in the Report of McKay et al. (1996)
			7.4.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
			7.4.2 Carbonate Globules and Magnetite Crystals
			7.4.3 Structures Resembling Terrestrial Life
		7.5 Life in the Martian Meteorite Was a Big Mistake!
			7.5.1 Magnetite Crystals Were Not Biomarkers
			7.5.2 Nanobacteria Was Not Life
			7.5.3 Similarities and Dissimilarities Between Microcrystals and Microorganisms
			7.5.4 Ineffectiveness of Morphological Similarities
			7.5.5 Conclusion: Morphology Is Not a Decisive Factor
		References
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	8 - The Hadean and Archaean Atmosphere and the Oldest Records of Life as Micro- or Chemofossils
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 The Perspective of Atmospheric Evolution From the Hadean to the Archean Earth
		8.3 Transportation of Materials on the Archaean Earth by Late Heavy Bombardment
		8.4 Is the Apex Chert, From the Pilbara Area, Western Australia, the Oldest Microfossils
		8.5 Carbon Isotopic Fractionation
		8.6 The Evidence of Life Older Than 3800Ma at the Isua Supracrustal Belt and Akilia Island, West Greenland
		8.713 C-Depleted Carbon Microparticles in >3700Ma Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks From West Greenland
		8.8 Questioning the Evidence for the Earth’s Oldest Fossils in Apex Cherts
		8.9 Objection to the Earliest Life on Akilia Island
		8.10 Back to the Isua Supracrustal Belt (ISB), Western Greenland
		8.11 Geological Evidence of Recycling of Altered Crust in the Hadean Eon
		8.12 Origin of Life Back to 4.1Billion Years Ago
		References
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	9 - How Did Initial Life-Related Molecules Appear on Earth?
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Classic Experiments
			9.2.1 The Primordial Soup Theory
			9.2.2 The Miller Experiment (or the Miller-Urey Experiment)
		9.3 Cosmic Origin of CHOs and CHONs
			9.3.1 CHOs and CHONs in Carbonaceous Chondrites and Comets
			9.3.2 The Hypothesis That CHOs and CHONs on Earth Came From Extraterrestrial Materials
			9.3.3 Transportation of CHOs and CHONs to Earth by the Late Heavy Bombardment
			9.3.4 Counterarguments to the Cosmic Origin of CHOs and CHONs
			9.3.5 The Possible Model for CHONs and Phosphorus
		9.4 Introduction to Impact-Shock Experiments for Syntheses of CHOs and CHONs
		9.5 Syntheses of CHOs by UV Irradiation on Interstellar Ices
		9.6 The Experiment Where the Icy Comet Hits Another Icy Comet in Space
			9.6.1 Details of the Gas-Gun Experiment
			9.6.2 Run Products by Impact Shock Experiments
			9.6.3 Synthetic Pathway for Production of α-Amino Acids
			9.6.4 Experimental Timescale
			9.6.5 Relevance of Experimental Results to the Synthesis of CHONs for the Origin of Life
			9.6.6 Definitive Evidence Against Comets as the Source of Earth’s Water
		9.7 The Icy Planet and Icy Planet/Archean Earth Collisions
			9.7.1 Introduction
			9.7.2 Birth of the Sun and the Earth, LHB, and CHONs
			9.7.3 Experiments of Laser-Induced Dielectric Breakdown
			9.7.4 Laser-Induced Dielectric Breakdown Synthesis From Formamide to Four Canonical Nucleobases
			9.7.5 Conclusion of Laser-Induced Dielectric Breakdown Experiments
		9.8 The Ice Planet That Fell on Earth’s Ocean
			9.8.1 Introduction
			9.8.2 Shock-Recovery Experiments
			9.8.3 Run Products of the Impact Experiments
			9.8.4 Implication for the Prebiotic Earth
		9.9 Summary for the Formation of CHOs and CHONs
		9.10 Selection of CHO and CHON Enantiomers
		9.11 Discovery of Chiral Molecule in Space
		References
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	10 - From Life-Related Molecules to Life
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Characterization of Present Life
		10.3 The Schematic Structure of the Eukaryote Cell
		10.4 The Protocell
		10.5 A Reproduction Model of the Protocell
		10.6 Hypothetical Evolution Steps of Life
			10.6.1 Peptide World
			10.6.2 Peptide+Nucleic Acid World
			10.6.3 RNA World
		10.7 Assembly of Nucleic Acids Without Enzyme
		10.8 The Cytoplasm of the Protocell
		10.9 The Cell Cycle
			10.9.1 Sugawara’s Experiment
			10.9.2 Yomo’s Experiment
		10.10 Road From Protocell to Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota
		References
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	12 - Conclusions
		Reference
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	Index
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