Optical Metrology

Optical Metrology Third Edition......Page 4
Contents......Page 8
Preface to the Third Edition......Page 14
1.2 Wave Motion. The Electromagnetic Spectrum......Page 16
1.3 The Plane Wave. Light Rays......Page 18
1.4 Phase Difference......Page 19
1.6 Oblique Incidence of A Plane Wave......Page 20
1.7 The Spherical Wave......Page 22
1.9 Geometrical Optics......Page 23
1.10 The Simple Convex (Positive) Lens......Page 25
1.11 A Plane-Wave Set-Up......Page 26
2.2 Refraction at a Spherical Surface......Page 30
2.3 The General Image-Forming System......Page 34
2.4 The Image-Formation Process......Page 36
2.5 Reflection at a Spherical Surface......Page 38
2.6 Aspheric Lenses......Page 40
2.7 Stops and Apertures......Page 41
2.8 Lens Aberrations. Computer Lens Design......Page 43
2.9 Imaging and The Lens Formula......Page 44
2.10.1 Afocal Systems. The Telescope......Page 45
2.10.2 The Simple Magnifier......Page 47
2.10.3 The Microscope......Page 49
3.2 General Description......Page 52
3.3 Coherence......Page 53
3.4 Interference between two Plane Waves......Page 56
3.4.1 Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)......Page 60
3.5 Interference between other Waves......Page 61
3.6 Interferometry......Page 64
3.6.1 Wavefront Division......Page 65
3.6.2 Amplitude Division......Page 66
3.6.3 The Dual-Frequency Michelson Interferometer......Page 69
3.6.4 Heterodyne (Homodyne) Detection......Page 70
3.7 Spatial and Temporal Coherence......Page 71
3.8 Optical Coherence Tomography......Page 76
4.2 Diffraction from a Single Slit......Page 82
4.3.1 The Grating Equation. Amplitude Transmittance......Page 85
4.3.2 The Spatial Frequency Spectrum......Page 88
4.4 Fourier Optics......Page 90
4.5 Optical Filtering......Page 91
4.5.1 Practical Filtering Set-Ups......Page 93
4.6 Physical Optics Description of Image Formation......Page 96
4.6.1 The Coherent Transfer Function......Page 98
4.6.2 The Incoherent Transfer Function......Page 100
4.6.3 The Depth of Focus......Page 103
4.7 The Phase-Modulated Sinusoidal Grating......Page 104
5.2 Radiometry. Photometry......Page 114
5.2.1 Lambertian Surface......Page 117
5.2.2 Blackbody Radiator......Page 118
5.2.3 Examples......Page 120
5.3 Incoherent Light Sources......Page 123
5.4.1 Stimulated Emission......Page 124
5.4.2 Gas Lasers......Page 127
5.4.4 Semiconductor Diode Lasers. Light Emitting Diodes......Page 129
5.4.5 Solid-State Lasers......Page 132
5.4.7 Enhancements of Laser Operation......Page 134
5.4.8 Applications......Page 137
5.4.9 The Coherence Length of a Laser......Page 138
5.5.1 Silver Halide Emulsions......Page 140
5.5.2 Thermoplastic Film......Page 141
5.6 Photoelectric Detectors......Page 142
5.6.1 Photoconductors......Page 143
5.6.2 Photodiodes......Page 144
5.7.1 Operating Principles......Page 146
5.7.2 Responsitivity......Page 149
5.8.1 Ideal Sampling......Page 150
5.8.2 Non-Ideal Sampling......Page 153
5.9 Signal Transfer......Page 154
6.2 The Holographic Process......Page 162
6.4 Uncollimated Reference and Reconstruction Waves......Page 165
6.5 Diffraction Efficiency. The Phase Hologram......Page 168
6.6 Volume Holograms......Page 169
6.7 Stability Requirements......Page 171
6.8.2 Real-Time Interferometry......Page 172
6.8.3 Analysis of Interferograms......Page 173
6.8.4 Localization of Interference Fringes......Page 176
6.9 Holographic Vibration Analysis......Page 180
6.10 Holographic Interferometry of Transparent Objects......Page 183
7.2 Sinusoidal Gratings......Page 188
7.4 Measurement of In-Plane Deformation and Strains......Page 190
7.4.1 Methods for Increasing the Sensitivity......Page 192
7.5.1 Shadow Moiré......Page 194
7.5.2 Projected Fringes......Page 195
7.5.3 Vibration Analysis......Page 201
7.5.4 Moiré Technique by Means of Digital Image Processing......Page 203
7.6 Reflection Moiré......Page 204
7.7 Triangulation......Page 205
8.2 The Speckle Effect......Page 208
8.3 Speckle Size......Page 210
8.4.1 The Fourier Fringe Method......Page 212
8.4.2 The Young Fringe Method......Page 216
8.5 Speckle Correlation......Page 218
8.6 Speckle-Shearing Interferometry......Page 223
8.7 White-Light Speckle Photography......Page 227
9.2 Polarized Light......Page 232
9.3.1 The Linear Polarizer......Page 234
9.3.2 Retarders......Page 236
9.5 Reflection and Refraction at an Interface......Page 238
9.6 The Jones Matrix Formalism of Polarized Light......Page 242
9.7.1 Introduction......Page 245
9.7.2 The Plane Polariscope......Page 246
9.7.3 The Circular Polariscope......Page 247
9.7.4 Detection of Isochromatics of Fractional Order. Compensation......Page 249
9.8 Holographic Photoelasticity......Page 252
9.9.1 Introduction......Page 254
9.9.2 The Frozen Stress Method......Page 256
9.9.3 The Scattered Light Method......Page 257
9.10 Ellipsometry......Page 260
10.2 The Frame Grabber......Page 264
10.4 Camera Calibration......Page 266
10.4.1 Lens Distortion......Page 267
10.5 Image Processing......Page 269
10.5.1 Contrast Stretching......Page 270
10.5.2 Neighbourhood Operations. Convolution......Page 271
10.5.3 Noise Suppression......Page 272
10.5.4 Edge Detection......Page 274
10.6 The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and the FFT......Page 277
11.2.1 Introduction......Page 284
11.2.3 Fringe Tracking and Thinning......Page 285
11.2.4 Fringe Location by Sub-Pixel Accuracy......Page 288
11.3.2 Principles of TPMI......Page 291
11.3.4 Different Techniques......Page 294
11.3.5 Errors in TPMI Measurements......Page 296
11.4.1 Multichannel Interferometer......Page 297
11.4.3 Spatial-Carrier Phase-Measurement Method......Page 300
11.4.4 Errors in the Fourier Transform Method......Page 302
11.4.5 Space Domain......Page 304
11.5.1 Introduction......Page 305
11.5.3 Path-Dependent Methods......Page 307
11.5.4 Path-Independent Methods......Page 308
11.5.5 Temporal Phase Unwrapping......Page 310
12.1 Introduction......Page 312
12.2 TV Holography (ESPI)......Page 313
12.3 Digital Holography......Page 316
12.4 Digital Speckle Photography......Page 320
13.2 Light Propagation through Optical Fibres......Page 322
13.3 Attenuation and Dispersion......Page 325
13.4 Different Types of Fibres......Page 328
13.5 Fibre-Optic Sensors......Page 330
13.6 Fibre-Bragg Sensors......Page 333
A. Complex Numbers......Page 340
B.1 The Fourier Transform......Page 342
B.2 Some Functions and Their Transforms......Page 344
B.3 Some Implications......Page 347
C. Fourier Series......Page 350
D. The Least-Squares Error Method......Page 354
E. Semiconductor Devices......Page 358
References and Further Reading......Page 362
Index......Page 370