Operating Systems

Cover
Half Title
About the Authors
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Visual Tour
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS
	1.1 Zeroth Generation: Mechanical Parts
	1.2 First Generation (1945––1955): Vacuum Tubes
	1.3 Second Generation (1955––1965): Transistors
	1.4 Third Generation (1965––1980): Integrated Circuits
		1.4.1 (a) Integrated Circuits
		1.4.2 (b) Portability
		1.4.3 (c) Job Control Language
		1.4.4 (d) Multiprogramming
		1.4.5 (e) Spooling
		1.4.6 (f) Time Sharing
	1.5 Fourth Generation (1980––1990): Large Scale Integration
		1.5.1 Batch Systems
		1.5.2 Real time Systems
		Summary
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Review Questions
Chapter 2: COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 A 4GL Program
	2.3 A 3GL (HLL) Program
	2.4 A 2GL (Assembly) Program
	2.5 A 1GL (Machine Language) Program
		2.5.1 Assembler
		2.5.2 Instruction Format
		2.5.3 Loading/Relocation
	2.6 0GL (Hardware Level)
		2.6.1 Basic Concepts
		2.6.2 CPU Registers
		2.6.3 The ALU
		2.6.4 The Switches
		2.6.5 The Decoder Circuit
		2.6.6 The Machine Cycle
		2.6.7 Some Examples
	2.7 The Context of a Program
	2.8 Interrupts
		2.8.1 The Need for Interrupts
		2.8.2 Computer Hardware for Interrupts and Hardware Protection
	2.9 Storage Structure
		2.9.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)
		2.9.2 Secondary Memory
	2.10 Storage Hierarchy
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 3: OPERATING SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
	3.1 What is an Operating System?
	3.2 Different Services of the Operating System
		3.2.1 Information Management (IM)
		3.2.2 Process Management (PM)
		3.2.3 Memory Management
	3.3 Uses of System Calls
	3.4 The Issue of Portability
	3.5 User’s View of the Operating System
	3.6 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
	3.7 The Kernel
	3.8 Booting
	3.9 Virtual Machine
	3.10 System Calls
		3.10.1 Validations
		3.10.2 Open Input File
		3.10.3 Output File
		3.10.4 File Close
		Summary
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Review Questions
Chapter 4: FILE SYSTEMS
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Disk Basics
		4.1.2 Direct Memory Access
	4.2 The File System
		4.2.1 Introduction
		4.2.2 Block and Block Numbering Scheme
		4.2.3 File Support Levels
		4.2.4 Writing a Record
		4.2.5 Reading a Record
		4.2.6. The Relationship Between the Operating System and DMS
		4.2.7 File Directory Entry
		4.2.8 OPEN/CLOSE Operations
		4.2.9 Disk Space Allocation Methods
		4.2.10 Directory Structure: User’s View
		4.2.11. Implementation of a Directory System
		4.2.12 File Organization and Access Management
		4.2.13 File Organization and Access Management
		4.2.14 File Sharing and Protection
		4.2.15 Directory Implementation
		4.2.16 Directory Operations
		4.2.17 Free Space Management
		4.2.18 Bit Vector
		4.2.19 Log Structured File System
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 5: I/O MANAGEMENT AND DISK SCHEDULING
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 The Basics of Device Driver
		5.1.2 Path Management
		5.1.3 The Submodules of DD
		5.1.4 I/O Procedure
		5.1.5 I/O Scheduler
		5.1.6 Device Handler
		5.1.7 The Complete Picture
	5.2 Terminal I/O
		5.2.1 Introduction
		5.2.2 Terminal Hardware
		5.2.3 Terminal Software
	5.3 CD-ROM
		5.3.1 The Technical Details
		5.3.2 Organizing Data on the CD-ROM
		5.3.3 DVD-ROM
	5.4 Terms and Definitions
		5.4.1 Disk Scheduling
		5.4.2 SCAN
		5.4.3 Circular SCAN (C-SCAN)
		5.4.4 LOOK
		5.4.5 Circular LOOK (C-LOOK)
		5.4.6 Swap Space Management
		5.4.7 Disk Space Management
		5.4.8 Block Size
		5.4.9 Keeping Track of Free Blocks
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 6: PROCESS MANAGEMENT
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 What is a Process?
	6.3 Evolution of Multiprogramming
	6.4 Context Switching
	6.5 Process States
	6.6 Process State Transitions
	6.7 Process Control Block (PCB)
	6.8 Process Hierarchy
	6.9 Operations on a Process
	6.10 Create a Process
	6.11 Kill a Process
	6.12 Dispatch a Process
	6.13 Change the Priority of a Process
	6.14 Block a Process
	6.15 Dispatch a Process
	6.16 Time up a Process
	6.17 Wake up a Process
	6.18 Suspend/resume Operations
	6.19 CPU Scheduling
		6.19.1 Scheduling Objectives
		6.19.2 Concepts of Priority and Time Slice
		6.19.3 Scheduling Philosophies
		6.19.4 Scheduling Levels
		6.19.5 Scheduling Policies (For Short Term Scheduling)
	6.20 Multithreading
		6.20.1 Multithreading Models
		6.20.2 Implementation of Threads
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 7: PROCESS SYNCHRONIZATION
	7.1 The Producer — Consumer Problems
	7.2 Solutions
		7.2.1 Interrupt Disabling/Enabling
		7.2.2 Lock-flag
		7.2.3 Primitives for Mutual Exclusion
		7.2.4 Overview of Attempts
		7.2.5 Alternating Policy
		7.2.6 Peterson’s Algorithm
		7.2.7 Hardware Assistance
		7.2.8 Semaphores
	7.3 The Classical IPC Problems
		7.3.1 Algorithms
		7.3.2 Monitors
		7.3.3 Message Passing
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 8: DEADLOCKS
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Graphical Representation of a Deadlock
	8.3 Deadlock Prerequisites
		8.3.1 Mutual Exclusion Condition
		8.3.2 Wait for Condition
		8.3.3 No Preemption Condition
		8.3.4 Circular Wait Condition
	8.4 Deadlock Strategies
		8.4.1 Ignore a Deadlock
		8.4.2 Detect a Deadlock
		8.4.3 Recover from a Deadlock
		8.4.4 Prevent a Deadlock
		8.4.5 Avoid a Deadlock
		Summary
		Review Questions
		Terms and Concepts Used
Chapter 9: MEMORY MANAGEMENT (MM)
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Relocation and Address Translation
		9.1.2 Protection and Sharing
	9.2 Single Contiguous Memory Management
		9.2.1 Relocation/Address Translation
		9.2.2 Protection and Sharing
		9.2.3 Evaluation
	9.3 Fixed Partitioned Memory Management
		9.3.1 Introduction
		9.3.2 Allocation Algorithms
		9.3.3 Swapping
		9.3.4 Relocation and Address Translation
		9.3.5 Protection and Sharing
		9.3.6 Evaluation
	9.4 Variable Partitions
		9.4.1 Introduction
		9.4.2 Allocation Algorithms
		9.4.3 Swapping
		9.4.4 Relocation and Address Translation
		9.4.5 Protection and Sharing
		9.4.6 Evaluation
	9.5 Non-contiguous Allocation - General Concepts
	9.6 Paging
		9.6.1 Introduction
		9.6.2 Allocation Algorithms
		9.6.3 Swapping
		9.6.4 Relocation and Address Translation
	9.7 Segmentation
		9.7.1 Introduction
		9.7.2 Swapping
		9.7.3 Address Translation and Relocation
		9.7.4 Sharing and Protection
	9.8 Combined Systems
	9.9 Virtual Memory Management Systems
		9.9.1 Introduction
		9.9.2 Relocation and Address Translation
		9.9.3 Swapping
		9.9.4 Relocation and Address Translation
		9.9.5 Protection and Sharing
		9.9.6 Evaluation
		9.9.7 Design Considerations for Virtual Systems
		9.9.8 Virtual Memory
		9.9.9 Paging
		9.9.10 Demand Paging
		9.9.11 Process Creation
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 10: OPERATING SYSTEM: SECURITY AND PROTECTION
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Security Threats
	10.3 Attacks on Security
		10.3.1 Authentication
		10.3.2 Browsing
		10.3.3 Trap Doors
		10.3.4 Invalid Parameters
		10.3.5 Line Tapping
		10.3.6 Electronic Data Capture
		10.3.7 Lost Line
		10.3.8 Improper Access Controls
		10.3.9 Waste Recovery
		10.3.10 Rogue Software and Program Threats
		10.3.11 Covert Channel
	10.4 Security Violation through Parameters
		10.4.1 Denial of Service and Domain of Protection
		10.4.2 A More Serious Violation
		10.4.3 The Cause
		10.4.4 Solution: Atomic Verification
	10.5 Computer Worms
		10.5.1 Origins
		10.5.2 Mode of Operation
		10.5.3 The Internet Worm
		10.5.4 Safeguards against Worms
	10.6 Computer Virus
		10.6.1 Types of Viruses
		10.6.2 Infection Methods
		10.6.3 Mode of Operation
		10.6.4 Virus Detection
		10.6.5 Virus Removal
		10.6.6 Virus Prevention
	10.7 Security Design Principles
		10.7.1 Public Design
		10.7.2 Least Privilege
		10.7.3 Explicit Demand
		10.7.4 Continuous Verification
		10.7.5 Simple Design
		10.7.6 User Acceptance
		10.7.7 Multiple Conditions
	10.8 Authentication
		10.8.1 Authentication in Centralised Environment
		10.8.2 Authentication in Distributed Environment
	10.9 Protection Mechanisms
		10.9.1 Protection Framework
		10.9.2. Access Control List (ACL)
		10.9.3 Capability List
		10.9.4 Combined Schemes
	10.10 Data Encryption
		10.10.1 Risks Involved
	10.11 Basic Concepts
		10.11.1 Plain Text and Cipher Text
		10.11.2 Substitution Cipher
		10.11.3 Transposition Cipher
		10.11.4 Types of Cryptography
	10.12 Digital Signature
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 11: PARALLEL PROCESSING
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 What is Parallel Processing?
	11.3 Difference between Distributed and Parallel Processing
	11.4 Advantages of Parallel Processing
	11.5 Writing Programs for Parallel Processing
	11.6 Classification of Computers
	11.7 Machine Architectures Supporting Parallel Processing
		11.7.1 Bus-based Interconnections
		11.7.2 Switched Memory Access
		11.7.3 Hypercubes
	11.8 Operating Systems for Parallel Processors
		11.8.1 Separate Operating Systems
		11.8.2 Master/Slave System
		11.8.3 Symmetric Operating System
	11.9 Issues in Operating System in Parallel Processing
		11.9.1 Mutual Exclusion
		11.9.2 Deadlocks
	11.10 Case Study: Mach
		11.10.1 Memory Management in Mach
		11.10.2 Communication in Mach
		11.10.3 Emulation of an Operating System in Mach
	11.11 Case Study: DG/UX
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 12: OPERATING SYSTEMS IN DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Distributed Processing
		12.2.1 Centralized vs Distributed Processing
		12.2.2 Distributed Applications
		12.2.3 Distribution of Data
		12.2.4 Distribution of Control
		12.2.5 An Example of Distributed Processing
		12.2.6 Functions of NOS
		12.2.7 Overview of Global Operating System (GOS)
	12.3 Process Migration
		12.3.1 Need for Process Migration
		12.3.2 Process Migration Initiation
		12.3.3 Process Migration Contents
		12.3.4 Process Migration Example
		12.3.5 Eviction
		12.3.6 Migration Processes
	12.4 Remote Procedure Call
		12.4.1 Introduction
		12.4.2 A Message Passing Scheme
		12.4.3 Categories of Message Passing Scheme
		12.4.4 RPC
		12.4.5 Calling Procedure
		12.4.6 Parameter Representation
		12.4.7 Ports
		12.4.8 RPC and Threads
	12.5 Distributed Processes
		12.5.1 Process-based DOS
		12.5.2 Object-based DOS
		12.5.3 Object Request Brokers (ORB)
	12.6 Distributed File Management
		12.6.1 Introduction
		12.6.2 File Replication
		12.6.3 Distributed File System
	12.7 NFS—A Case Study
		12.7.1 Introduction
		12.7.2 NFS Design Objectives
		12.7.3 NFS Components
		12.7.4 How NFS Works
	12.8 Cache Management in Distributed Processing
	12.9 Printer Servers
	12.10 Client-based (File Server) Computing
	12.11 Client–Server (Database Server) Computing
	12.12 Issues in distributed database systems
	12.13 Distributed Mutual Exclusion
	12.14 Deadlocks in Distributed Systems
	12.15 LAN Environment and Protocols
		12.15.1 Introduction
		12.15.2 Data Communication Errors
		12.15.3 Messages, Packets, Frames
		12.15.4 NIC Functions: An Example
		12.15.5 LAN Media Signals and Topologies
	12.16 Networking Protocols
		12.16.1 Protocols in Computer Communications
		12.16.2 The OSI Model
		12.16.3 Layered Organization
		12.16.4 Physical Layer
		12.16.5 Data Link Layer
		12.16.6 Network Layer
		12.16.7 Transport Layer
		12.16.8 Session Layer
		12.16.9 Presentation Layer
		12.16.10 Application Layer
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 13: WINDOWS NT/2000: A CASE STUDY
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Windows NT
		13.2.1 Process Management
	13.3 Windows NT
		13.3.1 Process Synchronization
		13.3.2 Memory Management
	13.4 Windows 2000
		13.4.1 Win32 Application Programming Interface (Win32 API)
		13.4.2 Windows Registry
		13.4.3 Operating System Organization
		13.4.4 Process Management in Windows 2000
		13.4.5 Memory Management in Windows 2000
		13.4.6 File Handling in Windows 2000
		13.4.7 Important Features of NTFS
		13.4.8 File Compression and Encryption
		13.4.9 Security in Windows 2000
		13.4.10 Windows 2000 and Kerberos
		13.4.11 MS-DOS Emulation
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions
Chapter 14: UNIX: A CASE STUDY
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 The History of UNIX
	14.3 Overview of UNIX
	14.4 UNIX File System
		14.4.1 User’s View of File System
		14.4.2 Different Types of Files
		14.4.3 Mounting/Unmounting File Systems
		14.4.4 Important UNIX directories/files
		14.4.5 The Internals of File Systems
		14.4.6 Run-time Data Structures for File Systems
		14.4.7 “Open” System Call
		14.4.8 “Read” System Call
		14.4.9 “Write” System Call
		14.4.10 Random Seek — “Lseek” System Call
		14.4.11 “Close” System Call
		14.4.12 Create a File
		14.4.13 Delete a File
		14.4.14 Change Directory
		14.4.15 Implementation of Pipes
		14.4.16 Implementation of Mount/Unmount
		14.4.17 Implementation of Link/Unlink
		14.4.18 Implementation of Device I/O in UNIX
	14.5 Data Structures for Process/memory Management
		14.5.1 The Compilation Process
		14.5.2 Process Table
		14.5.3 u-area
		14.5.4 Per Process Region Table (Pregion)
		14.5.5 Region Table
		14.5.6 Page Map Tables (PMT)
		14.5.7 Kernel Stack
	14.6 Process States and State Transitions
	14.7 Executing and Terminating a Program in UNIX
		14.7.1 Introduction
		14.7.2 “Fork” System Call
		14.7.3 “Exec” System Call
		14.7.4 Process Termination — “Exit” System call
		14.7.5 “Wait” System Call
	14.8 Using the System (Booting and Kogin)
		14.8.1 Booting Process: Process 0, Process 1
		14.8.2 Login Process
	14.9 Process Scheduling
	14.10 Memory Management
		14.10.1 Introduction
		14.10.2 Swapping
		14.10.3 Demand Paging
		14.10.4 An Example Using Demand Paging
	14.11 Solaris Process/thread Management and Synchronization: A Case Study
		14.11.1 Solaris Thread and SMP Management
		14.11.2 Solaris Process Structure
		14.11.3 Solaris Thread Synchronization
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
Chapter 15: LINUX–A CASE STUDY
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 UNIX and Linux: A Comparison
	15.3 Process Management
	15.4 Process Scheduling
	15.5 Memory Management
	15.6 File Management
	15.7 Device Drivers
	15.8 Security
		15.8.1 Access Control
		15.8.2 User Authentication
		Terms and Concepts Used
		Summary
		Review Questions (Common for Chapters 14 and 15)
Answers to True & False
Answers to Multiple Choice Questions
Index