On Human Nature. Biology, Psychology, Ethics, Politics, and Religion

On Human Nature: Biology, Psychology, Ethics,
Politics, and Religion
Copyright
List of Contributors
Editors' Biographies
Foreword
Preface
Part I: Biological Basis of Human Diversity
	1. The Advent of Biological Evolution and Humankind: Chance or Necessity?
		Chance and Necessity
		Epigenetic Processes
		What is a Hominin?
		Human Similarities and Differences
		The Distinctive Features of Humans
		Chance and Necessity in Human Evolution
		Can Adaptive Advantages of Bipedalism Be Identified?
		"Partial" Versus "Complete" Bipedalism
		The Two Adaptive Advantages of Bipedalism
		The Origin of Modern Humans
		References
	2. Hominins: Context, Origins, and Taxic Diversity
		Hominins Located in the Tree of Life
		Candidates for the Stem Hominin
			Ardipithecus ramidus
			Orrorin tugenensis
			Sahelanthropus tchadensis
			Ardipithecus kadabba
		Assessing the Claims for Hominin Status
		Ladder or Bush?
		Evidence of Taxic Diversity Within the Hominin Clade
			7.0 - 5.0 MA
			5.0 - 4.0 MA
			4.0 - 3.0 MA
			3.0 - 2.5 MA
			2.5 - 2.0 MA
			2.0 - 1.5 MA
			1.5 - 1.0 MA
			1.0 - 0.25 MA
			0.25 MA to the Present
		Discussion
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	3. The History of Early Homo
		The First Homo
		The Discovery of Homo erectus
		Dmanisi
		Hominins
		Paleoenvironment
		Stone Tools
		Post-Homo erectus Evidence
		Hobbit
		Conclusion: What We Learned from the Dmanisi Case
			The Question: Is Homo habilis the First Homo?
		Acknowledgment
		References
	4. The Contribution of Genetic Ancestry From Archaic Humans to Modern Humans
		Models of Human Origins
		Other Archaic Human Genomes
		Archaic Genomes and Modern Human Dispersals
		Archaic Genomes and Selection
		Concluding Remarks
		Acknowledgments
		References
	5. World Dispersals and Genetic Diversity of Mankind: The Out-of-Africa Theory and Its Challenges
		Introduction
		Phylogeography and Models of Human Evolution
			Coalescent Theory and Mitochondrial Eve
			Hypothesis Compatibility Versus Hypothesis Testing
			Computer Simulations With Bayesian Hypothesis Testing
			Building Models Through Hypothesis Testing
			Ancient DNA Studies
		Fossils, Archaeology, and Models of Human Evolution
			One Human Lineage or Multiple Species?
			Concordance of Fossils and Archaeology With Models of Human Evolution
		Implications of Recent Human Evolution for Current Patterns of Human Genetic Diversity
			The Impact of Gene Flow and Admixture on Genetic Diversity
			To Tree or Not to Tree, That Is the Question
			Do Human Races Exist?
		Summary and Conclusions
			Hypothesis Testing in Scientific Inference
		The Evolutionary and Genetic Unity of the Human Species
		References
	6. Human Population Variability and Its Adaptive Significance
		List of Abbreviations
		A Mankind Population Genetics Framework for Applied Research
			Most Genetic Variation Occurs Within Continental Groups
			Clines, Clusters, Clinal Clusters, Trees?
			Russian Dolls Everywhere
			All Admixed
			Toward Homogenization?
			Ancestry Informative Markers Versus Self-Reported Ancestry
			The Contribution of Ancient DNA: Archaic Adaptative Introgression
			Old Debates Revisited: Basques, Indo-Europeans, and Jews
			Out-of-Africa and That’s It? Not So Simple
		Rarity Matters: Rare Variants and Low Frequency Variants
		Copy Number Matters: Structural Variation
		Not Only Genes: Regulation is a Major Actor
		What About Phenotypic Geographical Variation?
		Abundant Indications for Recent and Geographically Differentiated Evolution
			Mountaineers
			White-Skinned, Blue-Eyed
			Milk Drinkers
			Other Examples of Recent Evolution
			Coevolution Between Culture and Genetics
			Brain Genes and Cognition
		Conclusion
		Glossary of Specialized Terms
		References
	7. Evolution and Implications of Genomic Diversity on “Human Kind” in India
		Introduction
		Peopling of India
			Early Settlers
			Autochthonous Expansions
			Arrival of Neolithic Farmers
			Population Stratification
			Enigma of Dravidian Land
			Deccan, Dry Land Farmers, and NRY HG L1
			Demic Expansion
			Settled Agriculture
			Culture, an Isolation Parameter
		Implications in Health and Disease
			Not All the Infected Develop the Disease
			Lotus and Cactus Model
			Pharmacogenomics
			Survival Dictum
		India: Grandest Experiment of Nature
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	8. The Human Brain: Evolution and Distinctive Features
		Introduction
		Some Basic Neuroanatomy
		Themes and Theories in Human Brain Evolution
			Association Cortex Enlargement by the Addition of Areas
			Association Cortex Expansion, Without Internal Compartmentation
			Association Cortex Enlargement With the Same Areas, but Reorganized
			Humans as Scaled-Up Apes
		Evolution of Brain Size and External Morphology
		Internal Changes
			Enlargement of Higher-Order Cortex and Thalamus
			Changes in Areal Organization, Function, and Connectivity
			Evidence for New Areas?
			Evolutionary Modifications of Sensory and Limbic Cortex
			Microstructural Changes
		Molecular Specializations Relevant to Human Brain Evolution
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	9. How Different Are Humans and “Great Apes”? A Matrix of Comparative Anthropogeny
		The Challenge of Comparative Anthropogeny
		Our Evolutionary Heritage and Primate Nature
			Classification
			Common Phenotypic Features of Humans
			Comparative Genomics
		Comparative Anthropogeny
			What Is Anthropogeny?
			A Comprehensive Comparative Approach Is Needed
			Limited Information Is Available on the Phenomes of Nonhuman Hominids
			Ethical and Practical Limitations on Further Acquisition of Information
			Body, Mind, and Society of Humans Show Major Departures From Those of “Great Apes”
		Matrix of Comparative Anthropogeny
			Origins and Rationale
			Goals
			Organization Into Domains of Human Knowledge
		Selected Examples of Comparative Anthropogeny
			Anatomy and Biomechanics
			Behavior
			Cell Biology and Chemistry
			Cognition
			Communication
			Culture
			Dental Biology and Disease
			Development
			Ecology
			Endocrinology
			General Life History
			Genetics
			Genomics
			Immunology
			Medical Diseases
			Mental Disease
			Neuroscience
			Nutrition
			Organ Physiology
			Pathology
			Pharmacology
			Reproductive Biology and Disease
			Skin Biology and Disease
			Social Organization
		Topic Timelines and Relationships
		Generating Networks of Relationships Among Matrix of Comparative Anthropogeny Topics
		Synthesis With Existing Theories of Human Origins
		Caveat: Absence of Evidence in Nonhuman Primates is Not Evidence of Absence
		Moving the Goalposts
		Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	10. Human Intergroup Variation and Disease Genetics
		List of Abbreviations
		Introduction
		Brief Review of Population Structure and Recent Evolution in Humans
		Looking for Disease Genes: Candidate Genes, GWAS, WGS; CD/CV. RV
		Mendelian Diseases Around the World
		Geographical Distribution of Complex Diseases
			Cardiovascular Diseases
			Diabetes and the Thrifty Hypothesis
			Psychological Disorders and Mental Illness
			Respiratory Diseases: Asthma
			Cancer
				Group Differences in Various Forms of Cancer
				Leukemia
				Melanoma
				Breast Cancer
		Transmissible Diseases, Still the Main Factor of Natural Selection in Humans
			Coevolution Between Humans and Pathogens: A Red Queen Story
				Selective Pressure and Agriculture
				Human Leukocyte Antigen Features
				Coevolution and the Red Queen Hypothesis
				Geographical Differences
			Infectious Diseases and History
			Different Populations, Different Diseases, Different Genes
				Malaria
				AIDS
				Human African Trypanosomiasis
				Other Transmissible Diseases
			Different Human Populations Carry Different Pathogen Strains
			Impact of Human Behavior on Infectious Disease Transmission: The Niche Construction Theory and the Baldwin Effect
		Inflammatory and Autoimmune Diseases: The Hygiene Hypothesis
		Resistance Alleles
		Concluding Remarks
		Glossary
		References
	11. Natural Selection Associated With Infectious Diseases
		Infectious Diseases and Human Evolution
			Evolution of Anatomically Modern Humans
			Human and Pathogens Coevolution
		Detecting Natural Selection in the Human Genome
			Forms of Natural Selection
			Methods to Detect Signatures of Natural Selection
			Resources Available: Data Sets and Bioinformatic Tools
		Signatures of Pathogen-Driven Natural Selection in the Human Genome
			The Selective Pressure Imposed by Pathogens
			Evolution of the Adaptive Immune System
			Evolution of the Innate Immune System
			Pathogen-Driven Selection Outside the Immune System
			Adaptation to Local Pathogenic Environments
		Evolutionary Causes of Susceptibility to Infectious Diseases
		Future Perspectives
		References
	12. Aging, Somatic Evolution, and Cancer
		Multicellularity and Somatic Evolution
		Organismal Fitness Versus Stem Cell Fitness
		Aging and Somatic Evolution
		Evolutionary Strategies for Cancer Suppression
		Tissue Organization and Tumor Suppression
		Evolutionary Understanding of Cancer: An Imminent Paradigm Shift
		References
	13. Evolution of the Human Leukocyte Antigen System
		Introduction
			Multicopy Gene Families Due to Segmental Duplications: Evolution of Different but Related Functions
			Extensive Allelic Polymorphism: Evidence for Multiple Selection Pressures
			Potential Bottlenecks
			Extensive Linkage Disequilibrium Between Human Leukocyte Antigen Loci
		Competing Evolutionary Pressures: HLA-NK Cell Interaction
		Future Considerations
			Influence of Human Leukocyte Antigen on the Microbiome (Commensal and Symbiotic Microorganisms)
		Conclusions
		References
	14. Human Life History Evolution: New Perspectives on Body and Brain Growth
		Introduction
		Mammalian Patterns
		Primate Patterns
		Humans
		Brain Evolution
		Gene Expression
		APOE Alleles
		Prospectus
		Acknowledgements
		References
	15. Gorillas in Our Midst? Human Sexual Dimorphism and Contest Competition in Men
		Introduction
		Strength of Sexual Selection in Men
		Selection for Male Contests
			Same-Sex Aggression
			Anatomical Adaptations for Male Contests
			Weapons Use
			Dominance Displays
				Behavioral Displays of Formidability
				Anatomical Threat Displays
				Dominance, Mating, and Reproductive Success
			Coalitional Aggression
		Alternatives to Male Contests
		Conclusion
		References
	16. The Human Family: Evolutionary Origins and Adaptive Significance
		Brain, Childhood, and Family
			Evolution of Mind in the Crèche of the Extended Family
		The Human Family
			Fathers
			Grandparents
			Extended Kinship and Control of Mating Relationships
		Neurological and Physiological Mechanisms
			Hormonal Basis for Attachment and Family Love
		Summary and Concluding Remarks
		References
	17. Biological Future of Humankind: Ongoing Evolution and the Impact of Recognition of Human Biological Variation
		Basic Principles of Human Adaptation
		Recent Change of Human Ecology
		Structural Reduction of Human Morphology
		Changes in Body Height
		Changes of Anatomical Structures
		Changes in Natural Selection
		Gene Flow Increasing Variation in Populations
		Coevolution of Humans and Pathogens
		Adaptations at the End of Life
		Miscarriage Rate and Maternal Age as Influencing Factors
		Influence by In Vitro Fertilization
		Influences of Changes in Family Structure
		Changes in Health and Disease Definition as a Consequence
		Acknowledgement
		References
Part II: Psychology, Behavior and Society
	18. Gene-Culture Models for the Evolution of Altruistic Teaching
		Introduction
			Models with Genetic and Cultural Transmission
			Social Learning and Altruistic Teaching
			Competition Between Teachers and Nonteachers
			Background for the New Model
		Basic Haploid Model with Asexual Reproduction and Uniparental Transmission
			Model Description
			Global Properties of ARUT Model
			Fixation of Nonteachers with Nonadaptive Phenotype
			Fixation of Nonteachers, Polymorphism of Adaptive and Nonadaptive Phenotypes
			Fixation of Teachers, Polymorphism of Adaptive and Nonadaptive Phenotypes
			Remarks
		Haploid Model with Sexual Reproduction and Biparental Transmission
			Model Description
			Identifying the Equilibria
			Genetically Monomorphic Equilibria of Nonteachers
			Genetically Monomorphic Equilibria of Teachers
			Special Case of Additive Vertical Transmission Parameters
		Adding Oblique Transmission
			Model Description
			Conditions for Invasion by Teachers
		Adding Horizontal Transmission (VTHT)
			Model Description
			Conditions for Invasion by Teachers
		Discussion
		Appendices
			Appendix 1. Analysis of Asexual Reproduction and Uniparental Transmission (ARUT) Dynamics in Eq. (18.15)
			Appendix 2. Stability in the Sexual Reproduction and Biparental Transmission (SRBT) Model
		Acknowledgments
		References
	19. Multiple Origins of Agriculture in Eurasia and Africa
		Introduction
		The Terminology Conundrum
		The Social Contexts of Cultivation and Domestication Emergence
		Animal Domestication
		Pathways to the Domestication of Plants
		Intra and Interregional Connections
		The Centers for Plant Cultivation and Domestication
			Introduction
			The Fertile Crescent
			China
		The Spread of Agriculture to the "Noncenters" and Its Impacts
			Europe and the Mediterranean Basin
			Korea and Japan
			Southeast Asia and India
			Africa
		Brief Review of the Americas
		Discussion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	20. The Quantum Origin of Life: How the Brain Evolved to Feel Good
		Introduction: Which Came First, Feelings or the Brain?
			What Drives Conscious Behavior?
		Consciousness on the Edge Between Quantum and Classical Worlds
		Life in the Quantum Underground
		Microtubules and Sex in the Primordial Soup
		Conclusion: Did "Quantum Feelings" Spark the Origin and Evolution of Life?
		Acknowledgements
		References
	21. Empathy, Theory of Mind, Cognition, Morality, and Altruism
		Introduction
		Neuroscience and Dynamics of Empathy
		Theory of Mind (ToM)
		The Relationship Between Empathy, ToM, Morality, and Other Neural Networks
		The Mesolimbic and Cortical Systems and Their Relationship With Altruism
		What is Altruism? (Hint: It's Not Necessarily What It Looks Like)
		The Problem With Prosociality
		Harmful Prosocial Behavior
		Altruism Through Evolution to Today
		References
	22. Cognitive Ethology and Social Attention
		Introduction
		Cognitive Ethology
		Cognitive Ethology: Lab to Life
			Images of One Person
			Images of People
			Dynamic Images of People
		Cognitive Ethology: Life to Lab
			The Duality of Eye Gaze
			Implied Social Presence
		Summary
			The Ethological Approach
			The Ecological Approach
			Ecological Optics
			Neisser’s Ecological Validity
		Concluding Comments
		References
	23. Human Sociobiology and Group Selection Theory
		What is Human Sociobiology?
		The First Wave of Criticisms of Sociobiology
		Kin Selection and Human Sociobiology
		Group Selection and Human Altruism
		Why Have Wilson's Views on the Importance of Multilevel Selection Been Largely Ignored by Evolutionary Biologists?
			Misconception
			Misconception
			Misconception
		What About Humans?
			Cultural Group Selection
			Religion and Human Behavior
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	24. Behavior Analysis, Darwinian Evolutionary Processes, and the Diversity of Human Behavior
		Population Thinking
		Darwinian Evolutionary Process
		Variation
			Functional Definition
			Pooling
			Cultural Practices and Individual Operant Behavior
		Recurrence
			The “Copying” Metaphor
			Imperfect Recurrence
			Recurrence in Behavior
		Selection
			Selection in Culture
			Primacy of Reproductive Success
			Why not Phenotypic Plasticity?
		Price’s Equation
		Evolutionary Explanations of Behavior
			Genetic Proximate and Ultimate Explanations
			Cultural Proximate and Ultimate Explanations
			Nesting of Evolutionary Processes
			The General Evolutionary Process
			Genetic Evolutionary Process
			Nesting Cultural Evolution Within Genetic Evolution
			Proximate and Ultimate Operant Explanations
			Nesting of Behavioral Evolution Within Cultural Evolution
			An Example: Self-Control
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	25. A Psychoanalyst Views the Self Across Civilizations
		Prologue
		The Social and Cultural Contexts of the Familial Self
		The Familial Self
		The Magic Cosmic and Spiritual Self
		Social and Cultural Contexts of Western Individualism
		Epilogue
		References
	26. Biological and Social Causation of Serious Mental Illness
		Diagnosing Mental Illness
		Theories of Etiology
		Mental Illness and Biology and Environment
			Schizophrenia
			Biological Risk Factors
			Social Risk Factors
			Psychological Risks and Models
			New Thinking and New Science
			From Complexity to Utility
		References
		Further Reading
	27. The Flexible Psychological Concept of Normality
		Part One
			Eugenics’ Normality
			Psychiatry’s Normality
			Rosenhan’s Normality
			DSM’s Normality
		Part Two
			Ethnocentrism’s Normality
			Normality’s Bias
			Evolution’s Normality
				The Normality of Resource Conservation
				The Normality of Skewed Fitness
				The Normality of Social Competition
				The Normality of Attachment
				The Normality of Social Risk and Fear of Exclusion
			Normality?
		References
	28. Diversity and Hierarchy in the Evolution of Mental Mechanisms
		Introduction
		Evo-Devo and Descent With Modification in the Brain
		Classical Versus Hierarchical Modularity
		Most of Human Nature Is Not Human Specific
		Much of Human Uniqueness Arises in Part From Non-Uniquely Human Mechanisms
		Part of Human Uniqueness Must Lie in Uniquely Modified Interactions
		Evolutionary Feedback is a Missing Ingredient
		Conclusion
		References
	29. Human Diversity at the Individual and Population Levels, and Societal Hierarchies
		Introduction
		Hierarchies and Dominance in the Animal Kingdom
		Do Humans Have Hierarchies?
		Uniquely Human Social Cognition
		How Our Ancestors Challenged Hierarchies
		Why Hierarchies are Functional
		From Cooperative to Exploitative Hierarchies
		Conclusion
		References
	30. Homosexuality and Evolution: A Critical Appraisal*
		Introduction
		Extent of Homosexuality
			Animals
			Humans
		Substance of Homosexuality
			Gay Genes
			Gay Brains
			Transgender Brains
		Function of Homosexuality
			Homosexuality Deleterious in All Circumstances: A Genetic Disease
				Criterion for a Genetic Disease
				Candidate Genetic Diseases
			Homosexuality Deleterious in Some Circumstances and Beneficial in Others
				Fertility Cost of Homosexuality
				Fertility Benefit of Homosexuality: Sex-Antagonistic Pleiotropy
				Fertility Benefit of Transgender: Helpers at the Nest
			Homosexuality Selectively Neutral
				Japanese Macaques
				Criterion for Selective Neutrality
			Homosexuality Selectively Advantageous
				Homosexuality Promotes Alliances and Partnerships
				Physical Intimacy Promotes Cooperative Coordination
		Summary
		Acknowledgement
		References
	31. The Roots and Individual Diversity of Addiction
		List of Abbreviations
		Introduction
		Addictive Behavior in Humans Throughout History
			Addictive Drugs in Prehistory and Patterns of Use
			Addictive Drugs in Modern Times: Toward a Scientific Definition of Addiction
			The Root of the Scientific Definition of Addiction
		Roots of Reinforcement and Motivation in Addiction
			Psychological and Motivational Mechanisms in Addiction: Reward Dysregulation
			The Brain Reward System: Substrate for Neuroadaptations in Addiction
			Neuropsychological Adaptations of Dependence, Craving and Relapse in Humans
		Dissecting Addictive Behavior: Approaches to Measure Reward and Addictive Phenotypes in Human and Animals
			Measuring Reward in Humans
			Measuring Addictive Phenotypes in Animals
				Drug-Induced Reinforcement
				Addictive Behaviors in Animals
		The Diversity in Transition to Addiction: Vulnerability Factors
			Biological and Developmental Factors: Gender and Adolescence
				Gender
				Adolescence
			Personality Traits and Psychiatric Disorders
				Anxiety
				Novelty Seeking
				Impulsivity
			Environmental and Social Factors
				Environment
				Social
			Genetic Factors and Gene 3 Environment Interactions: A Focus on Alcoholism
				Genetic Factors
				Gene X Environment Interactions
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	32. Human Variability and the Origins and Evolution of Language
		Introduction
		Levels of Relaxed Selection
			Intragenomic Relaxed Selection
			Intrasomatic Relaxed Selection
			Extrasomatic Relaxed Selection
		Relaxed Selection and Brain Evolution
			Domestication and Relaxed Sexual Selection
			Language Analogs to the Changes in Finch Song Control
		Conclusions and Possible Implications
		References
	33. Human Evolution and Progress
		Introduction
		The Ladder of Life
		The Idea of Progress
		Definition of Progress
		Kinds of Progress
		Progress as a Biological Concept
		Is Evolution Universally Progressive?
		Evolutionary Progress
		Progress and Human Consciousness
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	34. Culture, Brain, and Behavior: The Implications of Neural Plasticity and Development on Social Contexts and Political Structures
		The Interaction of Brain and Culture
			Culture, Mind, and Behavior
			Culture and Brain Structure
			Culture and the Human Brain
		Genetic Predispositions and Motivational Drives
			Cultural Neuroscience: Culture-Gene Interactions on Brain and Behavior
			Research Implications
		Cultural Practices and Long-Term Effects on Gene Expression and Epigenetic Processes
			Culture and Gene Regulation in Humans
			Adaptation, Embodiment, and Ecology
		Interaction of Culture and Development
		Conclusion
		References
Part III: Ethics, Politics and Religious Considerations
	35. Adaptive Significance of Ethics and Aesthetics
		Introduction
		Darwin and the Moral Sense
		Moral Behavior Versus Moral Norms
		Darwinian Aftermath
		Moral Behavior as Rational Behavior
		Conditions for Ethical Behavior
		Adaptation or Exaptation?
		Altruism and Group Selection
		Whence Moral Codes?
		Sociobiology's Account of Moral Behavior
		Altruism: Biological and Moral
		Gene-Culture Coevolution
		Aesthetics
		Oldowan and Acheulean Cultures
		Mousterian Culture and Neandertals
		Symbolism and Aesthetics: Aurignacian and Magdalenian Cultures
		References
	36. The Politics of Human Nature
		Introduction
		Dehumanization
		Evidence From History, Cultural Anthropology, and Social Psychology
		Two Forms of Dehumanization, From Explicit to Implicit
		Functional Perspective Necessary
		Conclusion and Outlook
		Acknowledgments
		References
	37. The Race/Ethnic Debate: An Outsider’s View
		List of Abbreviations
		Where are We Now: Human Genetic Diversity in Light of Modern Genomics
		The Taxonomical Problem: Are There "Races"?
			Semantic Clarification Is Needed
			Let Us Speak of Biology Only
			Race Detractors Versus Race Realists
			What Are We Talking About?
			Typological
			Phylogenetic
			Subspecific
			So, What Is the Target?
			So, Do Races Exist?
		Is Race a Social Construction?
			Social Constructions or Models?
			A Complex Interplay Between Social Construction and Biology
		The Fst Argument
		Discrepancies?
		Homogeneity and Boundaries
		So, How Many Races are There (If Any)?
		Races, Subspecies, and Species in Animals
		Semantic Caution: A Headache
		Censorship?
		Two Different Strategies to Fight Racism
			Science-Based Antiracism
			Morals-Based Antiracism
		References
	38. Social Darwinism
		Charles Darwin
		Social Views
		Herbert Spencer
		Points to Consider
		Adolf Hitler
		Julian Huxley
		Edward O. Wilson
		Conclusion
		References
	39. History and Diversity of Religion
		Religious Versus Nonreligious
		The Problem of Defining
		Defining Religion
		Classifying Religion as a Project of Secular Modernity
		The Development and Use of ``Religion'' in East Asia in the 19th and 20th Centuries
		Concluding Thoughts
		References
	40. Religion Viewed From Different Sciences
		What Is Science and What Is Religion?
		There Would Be No Room for Religion, if Science Covers All There Is
		There Would Be No Room for Religion if There Is Only ``Matter'' in This Universe
		There Would Be No Room for Religion if Science Can Explain Religion Away
		There Would Be No Room for Religion if We Go by the ``Hard'' Facts
		How Do We Get to the Facts?
		Is There a Way for Science and Religion to Live Together?
		References
	41. Universal Humanity, Religious Particularity, and Scientific Reductionism
		The First Gap: Consciousness in the Context of Neuroscience and Neurophilosophy
		The Second Gap: Religion in the Context of Sociobiology's Account of Evolution
		The Third Gap: Big History as the Comprehensive Context
		From Beyond Nature and History: The Axial Breakthrough
		Conclusion
		References
	42. Evolution and the Future of Medicine
		Introduction
		The Idea of Evolutionary Medicine
			A Two Cultures Problem
			Two Strategies for Bridging Biological Cultures
		An Evolutionary Perspective on Genomic Medicine
			The Failed Promise of Reductionist Genomics
			An Evolutionary Alternative to Reductionist Genomics
		A Hamiltonian Approach to the Chronic Diseases of Aging
			Aging: A Reductionist Failure
			The Evolutionary Solution to the Scientific Problem of Aging
			Applying Hamiltonian Research to Human Chronic Disease
		Strategies for Pharmaceutical Development
			The Impasse Facing Reductionist Pharmaceutical Research and Development for Chronic Disorders
			The Impasse Facing Evolutionary-Genomic Pharmaceutical Research and Development for Aging
			A Promising Middle Way?
		Conclusion: A Fourth Re-Visioning of Medicine
		References
	43. The Impact of Modern Medicine on Human Evolution
		Introduction
			The Meaning of “Modern Medicine”
			How Human Behavior Can Affect Human Evolution
		Eugenics
			Contemporary Eugenics
			Weaknesses of Eugenics Theories
		The Impact of Modern Medicine on Human Evolution
			Diagnostic Procedures
			Therapeutic Procedures
				Acute Versus Chronic
				Drugs and Vaccines for Infectious Diseases
				Genetic Therapies
				Organ Transplant
				Iatrogenic Disruption of Adaptive Symptoms
			Public Health
		Conclusion
		References
	44. Science and Technology in Human Societies: From Tool Making to Technology
		Tool Making
		Precultural Uses of Tools
		Taphonomic Indications of Culture
		Mode 1: Oldowan Culture
		The Transition Mode 1 (Oldowan) to Mode 2 (Acheulean)
		The Acheulean Technique
		Culture and Dispersal
		An Ancient Mode 2 in Asia?
		The Transition Mode 2 (Acheulean) to Mode 3 (Mousterian)
		Neandertals and Mousterian Culture
		The Transition Mode 3 (Mousterian) to Mode 4 (Aurignacian)
		The African Middle Stone Age
		The Protagonists of the South African MSA
		The Way Out of Africa for Homo sapiens
		Transitional Industries
		References
	45. Biology, Psychology, Ethics, and Politics: An Innate Moral Sense?
		The Original Moral Sense Theory
			Shaftesbury
			Hutcheson
			Hume
		Contemporary Evidence for a Moral Sense
			Developmental Psychology
			Evolutionary Biology and Animal Behavioral Economics
			Humans and Their Primate Nature
				Sympathy
				Hierarchy
				Reciprocity
				Reconciliation
			A Moral Grammar
		Moral Psychology and Neuroscience
		Conclusion
		Endnotes
		References
	46. What HIV Has Taught About the Interactions Between Biology, Culture, and Other Evolving Systems
		The Interaction of Evolutionary Systems
			Why Did the HIV Pandemic Emerge When and Where It Did?
			MHC Coevolution With Herpes and Other Viruses
		Antiretroviral Therapy in Treatment and Prevention
		Cultural and Political Context and Response to HIV
		Size of the HIV Epidemic
		Current Targets and Priorities to Control the HIV Epidemic
		What Can Be Learned From Our Response to HIV?
		Acknowledgments
		References
Index
	A
	B
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	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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