OECD Regional Outlook 2019 Leveraging Megatrends for Cities and Rural Areas: Leveraging Megatrends for Cities and Rural Areas

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Readers Guide
	Typologies of regions with respect to population or other functions
Acronyms and abbreviations
Executive summary
	Place-based policies can address weak economic growth and public discontent
	Automation and other disruptive technologies will reshape economies and societies in all regions
	Regional demography will change due to ageing, urbanisation and migration
	Subnational governments are important actors in fighting climate change
	Global megatrends entail new investment needs
	Multi-level governance systems have to be adapted to meet future demands
		Part I.  Regional policies to address global megatrends
Part I. Regional policies to address global megatrends
	Chapter 1.  Rethinking regional development policies
		The OECD regional policy paradigm at 20 years
			An evolving consensus – 20 years of policy discussion within the OECD Regional Development Policy Committee
				Regional development as a horizontal “policy of policies”
				Putting people at the centre of inclusive and sustainable growth
		The productivity slowdown and the impact of traditional structural reforms on regional productivity
			Most structural reforms do not consider regional disparities in productivity
				Not all regions are equally affected by structural reforms
		Productivity differences across regions are large and persistent
			Productivity growth in OECD countries tends to follow two growth models
				Is there a trade-off between high productivity and equally distributed productivity?
			Economic theory can only partly explain large and persistent productivity and employment differences across regions
		Cross-regional disparities imply a need for place-based policies
		Reaping the benefits from globalisation requires place-based development strategies
			The rise of exports from China
				Consumers reap the biggest gains from globalisation
			Trade-related tensions
		Addressing the geography of discontent calls for a place-based approach
			Policies to address the geography of discontent
		Notes
		References
	Chapter 2.  Adapting regional development policy to future megatrends
		Different dimensions of global megatrends
			The regional dimension needs to be at the forefront of policy making when addressing megatrends
		What changes are likely to come?
			Technological change
			Demographic change
			Environmental change
		Automation will have important consequences for regional economies
			Artificial intelligence could be a key technology in the future
			Rapid, widespread adoption of artificial intelligence would pose severe challenges for many regions
		Global megatrends will be felt differently in urban and rural areas
			How coming megatrends will affect urban areas
			How new technologies will affect rural areas
				Using opportunities will be crucial for the success of rural areas
		Megatrends will be shaped by policy
		Innovative governance to address megatrends
		New technologies will require reforms to subnational finance
		How to future-proof regional policy making?
			Strategic foresight to better prepare for an uncertain future
			How countries use forecast and foresight
		Notes
		References
	Chapter 3.  Regional policy is facing disruptive technologies
		Job automation will have asymmetric impacts on regions
			The use of manufacturing robots is increasing rapidly
			Job automation will have asymmetric impacts on regions
			How high is the risk of automation at the regional level?
			The evolution of regional employment and risk of automation over time
			Factors that explain the risk of automation at the regional level
			Automation creates a policy dilemma for economically struggling regions
		Digital innovation in cities
			Smart city objectives: The opportunities of digital innovation in cities
			Risks, challenges and trade-offs of digital innovation in cities
		Autonomous vehicles will transform mobility in cities and beyond
			Autonomous vehicles will change where people live and how they use cars
				Car sharing will become widespread
				Self-driving cars will threaten established public transport models
				Self-driving cars need to be regulated and taxed to avoid congestion
				Self-driving cars could free up much of the existing parking space in cities
				Self-driving cars will increase the attractiveness of rural areas
				Good regulation is essential for the successful introduction of self-driving cars
		New technologies for regional development in rural regions
			Better communications techniques
			Smart service provision in rural areas: Future of health and education
			3D printing: Decreasing reliance on supply chains
				3D printing creates new opportunities for economic development in peripheral regions
			Unmanned aerial vehicles: Improving productivity
			New approaches to agricultural practices
				Long-term perspectives on the future of food
		Note
		References
	Chapter 4.  Preparing regions for demographic and environmental transformations
		Population decline and ageing across regions
			The impacts of population decline on regions and cities
			The impacts of ageing on regions and cities
		Global urbanisation
			Drivers of growth: Megacities and urbanisation in the hinterlands
			Urban density depends more on the region than on city size
		Migration: A global phenomenon that requires local action
			Migration: A global phenomenon with local implications
				Important differences in migrants’ well-being and labour market outcomes across regions
			Policies to integrate migrants at the regional and local level
				A local integration strategy and horizontal co-ordination: Key tools for ensuring coherent settling in
		The future of demographic changes
			Looking ahead – high resolution population projections for 2030
			Adapting to demographic change
			Migration as an opportunity
		Travelling for leisure – the growing importance of tourism for regional development
			Evolving visitor demand
			Enabling technologies
			Travel mobility
			Sustainable tourism growth
		Global and local impacts of climate change
			The local and regional dimensions of climate change
			Scaling up regional and local climate action with a whole-of-government approach
				Mainstreaming subnational investment
				Aligning climate policies across levels of government
				Making the most of the comparative advantage of local governments
				Developing an “interface” to localise the Paris Agreement
			Integrated city-level action to reduce emissions
				Transport
				The built environment
				Long-term land-use planning
				Building resilient infrastructure
				Inclusive climate policies
		Managing resources efficiently for the future
			Sustainable resource extraction
				An increasing demand for new natural resources for new technologies: Lithium, cobalt and nickel
				The automation of mining
			The transition towards a circular economy in cities and regions
				The role of local governments in the transition to a circular economy
				Lessons learnt and ways forward
		Notes
		References
	Chapter 5.  Innovative multi-level governance to address future challenges
		Improving the efficiency and resilience of subnational fiscal systems
			Established sources of subnational tax revenues will be put under increasing pressure
			Better budgeting by all levels of government
		Rethinking the governance of regional development policies
			Applying behavioural insights to regional policies
			Digitalisation of government services in cities and regions
			Experimental governance in cities and regions: An avenue to address megatrends
				Trial-and-testing: Using experimental governance for regional policies
		Towards more differentiated multi-level governance
			Inter-municipal co-operation, metropolitan governance  and regionalisation trends
				Metropolitan governance bodies
				Regionalisation
			Asymmetric decentralisation to tailor governance to local needs  and capacities
			Adopting an integrated framework for rural policies
				Co-ordinating rural policies
			The benefits of national urban policies for managing urban transformations
				Implementing national urban policies
				Engaging stakeholders in the national urban policy processes
		Public investment in the face of global megatrends
			A significant investment gap remains
			More and smarter investment is needed
			Key responsibilities in the policy areas that are most affected by megatrends
			Tapping into external finance: From borrowing to innovative financing
				Developing borrowing, bond financing and pooled financing
				Subnational public-private partnerships
			Effective public investment requires investing in governance
				Addressing the capacity issue to invest more efficiently
				Focusing on performance
			A focus on EU Cohesion Policy
				Strengthening the results-oriented governance framework of EU Cohesion Policy
				Making rules simpler and ensuring flexibility
		Notes
		References
			Part II. Policy forum
Part II. Policy forum
	Chapter 6.  Addressing global megatrends  through EU Cohesion Policy
	Chapter 7.  Winner-take-all cities
		Notes
		References
	Chapter 8.  “It’s too late for pessimism”
		Towards a necessary global ecological and social transition
			Irrefutable evidence requiring a major shift
			National policies struggling to rise to the challenge
		Urban areas on the front line of change
			Cities are powerful drivers of support for the necessary technological  and demographic changes
			Intergovernmental co-operation must rely on local actors
		Policies to serve citizens
			Think “global village”
			A paradigm shift for more inclusive cities
			Towards a new global social contract?
	Chapter 9.  The triumph of urbanity and spatial justice
		Urbanity as a new urban age
		Arbitrage on inhabiting models
		A gaping spatial-political divide
		Novel issues for spatial justice
		Could the “Yellow Vests” reconcile with urbanity?
		Notes
		References
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