Ocean Studies: Introduction to Oceanography 4th Ed

Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
	Ocean Studies and Pedagogy
	Acknowledgments
IC. Introductory Chapter
	IC.1 Why the Ocean is Important to Us?
		IC.1.1 Biological Resources
			IC.1.1.1 Fisheries
			IC.1.1.2 Other Biological Resources
		IC.1.2 Transportation, Trade, and Military Use
		IC.1.3 Offshore Oil and Gas
		IC 1.4 Methane Hydrates
		IC.1.5 Minerals and Freshwater
		IC.1.6 Recreation, Aesthetics, and Endangered Species
		IC.1.7 Energy
		IC.1.8 Waste Disposal
	IC.2 The Ocean and the Origins of Life
	IC.3 The Ocean and Earth’s Environment
	IC.4 Humans and the Ocean
1. The Ocean in the Earth System
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Earth as a System
		1.2.1 Hydrosphere
		1.2.2 Atmosphere
		1.2.3 Geosphere
		1.2.4 Biosphere
	1.3 The Ocean in the Global Water Cycle
	1.4 Observing the Ocean
		1.4.1 In situ Monitoring of the Ocean’s Depths
		1.4.2 Remote Sensing by Satellite
	1.5 Modeling the Ocean
2. Ocean Basins and Plate Tectonics
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Distribution of the World Ocean
	2.3 Oceanic Crust and Continental Crust
	2.4 Plate Tectonics and Ocean Basin Features
		2.4.1 Evidence for Plate Tectonics
		2.4.2 Divergent Plate Boundaries
		2.4.3 Convergent Plate Boundaries
		2.4.4 Transform Plate Boundaries
		2.4.5 Mantle Convection and Sea Level
		2.4.6 Hot Spots
		2.4.7 Hydrothermal Vents
	2.5 Ocean Bottom Profile
		2.5.1 Continental Margins
	2.6 Spreading and Closing Cycles
3. Properties of Ocean Water
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 The Unique Water Molecule and its Hydrogen Bond
	3.3 Physical Properties of Ocean Water
		3.3.1 Heat Properties
		3.3.2 Density
		3.3.3 Pressure
		3.3.4 Sound Transmission
	3.4 Chemical Properties of Seawater
		3.4.1 Water as a Solvent
		3.4.2 Salinity
		3.4.3 Residence Time
		3.4.4 Variations in Salinity
		3.4.5 Dissolved Gases
		3.4.6 Seawater pH and Ocean Acidification
4. The Atmosphere and Ocean
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Weather and Climate
	4.3 Heating and Cooling Earth’s Surface
		4.3.1 Solar Radiation
		4.3.2 Solar Radiation Budget
		4.3.3 Solar Radiation and the Ocean
		4.3.4 Infrared Radiation and the Greenhouse Effect
	4.4 Heating Imbalances: Earth’s Surface versus Atmosphere
		4.4.1 Latent Heating
		4.4.2 Sensible Heating
	4.5 Heating Imbalances: Tropics versus High Latitudes
		4.5.1 Heat Transport by Ocean Circulation
		4.5.2 Heat Transport by Air Mass Exchange
		4.5.3 Heat Transport by Storms
	4.6 Meridional Overturning Circulation
	4.7 Circulation of the Atmosphere: The Forces
		4.7.1 Pressure Gradient Force
		4.7.2 Coriolis Effect
	4.8 Circulation of the Atmosphere: Patterns of Motion
		4.8.1 Planetary-Scale Circulation
		4.8.2 Synoptic-Scale Weather Systems
5. Ocean Currents
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Ocean’s Vertical Structure
	5.3 Ocean in Motion: The Forces
		5.3.1 Ekman Transport
		5.3.2 Upwelling and Downwelling
	5.4 Wind-Driven Surface Currents
		5.4.1 Gyres
		5.4.2 Equatorial Currents
		5.4.3 Boundary Currents
		5.4.4 Ocean Eddies
	5.5 Monitoring the Ocean Depths
	5.6 Large-Scale Ocean Circulation
		5.6.1 Formation of Deep Water
		5.6.2 Water Mass
		5.6.3 Implications for Climate
6. Ocean Waves and Tides
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Water Waves
		6.2.1 Wind-Wave Generation
		6.2.2 Deep-Water and Shallow-Water Waves
		6.2.3 Seiche
		6.2.4 Wave Mediated Atmosphere-Ocean Transfer
	6.3 Internal Waves
	6.4 Ocean Tides
		6.4.1 Tide-Generating Forces
		6.4.2 Types of Tides
		6.4.3 Tides in Ocean Basins
		6.4.4 Tidal Currents
		6.4.5 Observing and Predicting Tides
		6.4.6 Open-Ocean Tides
		6.4.7 Power Generation from Ocean Waves and Tides
	6.5 The Tsunami Hazard
7. The Dynamic Coast
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Coastline Formation
	7.3 Coastal Features
		7.3.1 Beaches
		7.3.2 Barrier Islands
		7.3.3 Rip Currents
		7.3.4 Tidal Wetlands
		7.3.5 Human Alterations
	7.4 Estuaries
	7.5 Coastal Storms
	7.6 Tropical Cyclone Characteristics
		7.6.1 Hurricane Hazards
		7.6.2 Tropical Cyclone Development
	7.7 Extratropical Cyclones
8. Marine Ecosystems
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Requirements for Marine Life
	8.3 Structure of Marine Ecosystems
		8.3.1 Marine Microbes
		8.3.2 Producers
		8.3.3 Consumers
		8.3.4 Decomposers
		8.3.5 Viruses
		8.3.6 Tropic Structure of Ecosystems
		8.3.7 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
	8.4 Ecosystem Processes
		8.4.1 Energy for Growth and Reproduction
		8.4.2 Production in the Photic Zone
		8.4.3 Nutrients and Trace Elements as Limiting Factors
	8.5 Ocean’s Role in the Global Carbon Cycle
		8.5.1 Physical Pump
		8.5.2 Biological Pump
	8.6 Ecosystem Observations and Models
9. Life in the Ocean
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Marine Habitats
		9.2.1 Oceanic Life Zones
		9.2.2 Pelagic and Benthic Environments
	9.3 Marine Animals
		9.3.1 Invertebrates
		9.3.2 Fishes
			9.3.2.1 Agnathans
			9.3.2.2 Cartilaginous Fishes
			9.3.2.3 Bony Fishes
		9.3.3 Marine Mammals
		9.3.4 Marine Reptiles
		9.3.5 Seabirds
	9.4 Life Strategies and Adaptations
		9.4.1 Buoyancy
		9.4.2 Light and Vision
		9.4.3 Sound
		9.4.4 Feeding Strategies
		9.4.5 Reproduction
		9.4.6 Associations
	9.5 Life in Selected Marine Environments
		9.5.1 Intertidal Zone
		9.5.2 Sea Grass Beds and Salt Marshes
		9.5.3 Kelp Forests
		9.5.4 Life On and In the Deep Ocean Floor
		9.5.5 Hydrothermal Vent Systems
10. The Ocean, Atmosphere, and Climate Variability
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Earth’s Climate System
		10.2.1 Climate Controls
		10.2.2 Role of the Ocean
	10.3 El Niño-Southern Oscillation
		10.3.1 Neutral Conditions in the Tropical Pacific
		10.3.2 El Niño, the Warm Phase
		10.3.3 La Niña, the Cold Phase
		10.3.4 Predicting and Monitoring El Niño and La Niña
			10.3.4.1 Frequency of El Niño and La Niña
	10.4 Other Atmosphere-Ocean Oscillations
		10.4.1 North Atlantic Oscillation
		10.4.2 Arctic Oscillation
		10.4.3 Pacific Decadal Oscillation
		10.4.4 Madden-Julian Oscillation
11. Ocean Sediments
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Classification of Ocean Sediments
		11.2.1 Classification by Grain Size
		11.2.2 Classification by Particle Source
			11.2.2.1 Lithogenous Sediment
			11.2.2.2 Biogenous Sediment
			11.2.2.3 Hydrogenous Sediment
			11.2.2.4 Cosmogenous Sediment
	11.3 Ocean Sediment Deposits
		11.3.1 Particle Transport and Settling
		11.3.2 Continental-Margin Deposits
		11.3.3 Deep-Ocean Deposits
	11.4 Distribution of Surface Sediments
	11.5 Ocean Sediment Stratigraphy
12. The Ocean and Climate Change
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 The Climate Record
	12.3 Factors Contributing to Climate Change
		12.3.1 Solar Variability
			12.3.1.1 Sunspots
		12.3.2 Earth’s Orbit
		12.3.3 Plate Tectonics
		12.3.4 Volcanoes
		12.3.5 Earth’s Surface Properties
		12.3.6 Human Activity
	12.4 Reconstructing Past Climate Conditions
		12.4.1 Proxy Records
		12.4.2 Instrument-based Temperature Record
	12.5 The Climate Future
		12.5.1 Global Climate Models
		12.5.2 Search for Cycles and Analogs
			12.5.2.1 Methane Hydrates and Climate Change
		12.5.3 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
		12.5.4 Climate Sensitivity
	12.6 Consequences of Global Warming
		12.6.1 Warming Ocean
		12.6.2 Shrinking Ice Sheets
		12.6.3 Shrinking Arctic Ocean Ice Cover
		12.6.4 Rising Sea Level
		12.6.5 Ocean Acidification
		12.6.6 Deoxygenation
		12.6.7 Marine Life
13. Ocean Exploration: Past and Present
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Investigating the Ocean
		13.2.1 Voyages of Exploration
		13.2.2 Voyages for Science
	13.3 Modern Ocean Studies
		13.3.1 Technological Innovations
		13.3.2 Remote Sensing
		13.3.3 Scientific Ocean Drilling
		13.3.4 Ships of Opportunity
		13.3.5 International Cooperation
		13.3.6 Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
		13.3.7 Aerial Drones
		13.3.8 Tags
		13.3.9 Towed Instruments
		13.3.10 Buoys
		13.3.11 Ocean Observatories
		13.3.12 Computers and Numerical Models
14. Ocean Stewardship
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Stewardship of the Ocean
	14.3 Adverse Effects of Human Activities
		14.3.1 Interference with Photosynthesis and Respiration
		14.3.2 Habitat Alteration
		14.3.3 Community Structure Alteration
		14.3.4 Contamination of Seafood
		14.3.5 Beach Closures and Aesthetic Losses
		14.3.6 Toxic Substances
			14.3.6.1 Evaluating Toxicity
			14.3.6.2 Synthetic and Naturally Occurring Toxins
	14.4 Reversing the Decline of Estuaries
	14.5 Fisheries and Sustainable Exploitation
		14.5.1 Overfishing
		14.5.2 Maximum Sustainable Yield
		14.5.3 Ecologically Sustainable Yield
		14.5.4 Bycatch
		14.5.5 Restoring Fisheries
		14.5.6 Recreational Fisheries
	14.6 Protecting Endangered Marine Species
		14.6.1 Sea Turtles
		14.6.2 Marine Mammals
			14.6.2.1 Whales
			14.6.2.2 Manatees
			14.6.2.3 Sea Lions
			14.6.2.4 Polar Bears
			14.6.2.5 Sea Otters
		14.6.3 Seabirds
	14.7 Aquaculture
	14.8 Marine Exotic Species
15. Ocean and Climate Policy
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Milestones in Ocean Governance
		15.2.1 Freedom of the Seas
		15.2.2 Law of the Sea Treaty
			15.2.2.1 Exclusive Economic Zones and Extended Continental Shelf Rights
		15.2.3 Antarctic Treaty
		15.2.4 Coastal Zone Management
	15.3 Global Policy in Response to Climate Change
		15.3.1 Mitigation
		15.3.1.1 Fossil Fuel Alternatives
		15.3.1.2 Geoengineering
	15.4 Obstacles to Ocean Policy Making
Glossary
Appendix I. Conversion Factors
Appendix II. Ocean Timeline