Nutrition and Psychiatric Disorders: An Evidence-Based Approach to Understanding the Diet-Brain Connection (Nutritional Neurosciences)

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Neurobiological Aspects of Psychiatric Disorders
	Chapter 1: Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology of Psychiatry Disorders
		1.1 Introduction to Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology in Psychiatry
		1.2 Depression
			1.2.1 Neuroanatomical Alterations Associated with Depression
		1.3 Anxiety Disorders
			1.3.1 Neuroanatomical Changes in Anxiety Disorder
			1.3.2 Neuropathological Correlations with Different Anxiety Disorders
		1.4 Bipolar Disorder
			1.4.1 Neuroanatomical Changes Observed in Bipolar Disorder
				1.4.1.1 Impacted Brain Structures Contributing to Mood Disturbances
			1.4.2 The Neuropathology of BD
		1.5 Schizophrenia
			1.5.1 Brain Structure Alterations and Neural Pathways Linked to Schizophrenia
			1.5.2 Neuropathological Aspects Associated with Schizophrenia
		1.6 Neuroimaging Techniques and Findings
		1.7 Pathophysiological Mechanisms Underlying Neuroanatomical and Neuropathological Changes
			1.7.1 Factors Influencing Neuroplasticity and Structural Changes in Psychiatric Disorders
			1.7.2 Genetic, Environmental, and Developmental Influences on Neuroanatomy in Mental Illnesses
		1.8 Clinical Implications and Future Directions
			1.8.1 Enhanced Diagnostic Precision
			1.8.2 Potential Therapeutic Interventions Targeting Neuroanatomical and Neuropathological Alterations
		1.9 Conclusion
			1.9.1 Summary of Key Points Discussed Regarding Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology in Psychiatric Disorders
		References
	Chapter 2: Biochemical and Neuropharmacology of Psychiatric Disorders
		2.1 Introduction to Neuropharmacology
			2.1.1 Understanding Neurotransmission
			2.1.2 Overview of Brain Biochemistry
		2.2 Neurochemical Basis of Psychiatric Disorders
			2.2.1 Role of Neurotransmitters in Mental Health
		2.3 Biological Mechanisms of Major Psychiatric Disorders
			2.3.1 Depression: Neurochemical Underpinnings
			2.3.2 Anxiety Disorders: Neuropharmacological Insights
			2.3.3 Schizophrenia and Neurotransmitter Dysfunction
			2.3.4 Bipolar Disorder: Biochemical Perspectives
		2.4 Neuropharmacological Treatments
			2.4.1 Psychotropic Medications and Their Modes of Action
			2.4.2 Pharmacological Interventions for Various Disorders
		2.5 Role of Nutrition in Modulating Neurochemistry
			2.5.1 Impact of Diet on Neurotransmitter Balance
			2.5.2 Nutritional Strategies for Managing Psychiatric Conditions
		2.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Human Nutritional Neuroscience: Fundamental Issues
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Metabolic Impact of Diet on Brain Health
		3.3 Role of Nutrition in the Development of Brain
		3.4 Food Constituents Affecting Human Behavior
		3.5 Macronutrients and Brain Function
			3.5.1 Glucose: The Brain’s Preferred Fuel
			3.5.2 Protein: Building Blocks for Structure and Function
			3.5.3 Fat: The Essential Ingredient for Brain Development and Protection
		3.6 Micronutrients and Brain Function
		3.7 The Gut-Brain Axis
		3.8 Cognition and Feeding
		3.9 Nutrition and Mental Health
		3.10 Assessing Nutritional Effects on Brain Function and Behavior in Humans
		3.11 Nutritional Psychiatry Research
		3.12 Nutritional Neuroscience Research Design and Control
		3.13 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: Central Nervous System Regulation of Eating and Brain Functions
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Homeostatic Food Intake
		4.3 Brain Networks Involved in Eating
		4.4 Arcuate Nucleus
		4.5 Paraventricular Nuclei
		4.6 Lateral Hypothalamic Area
		4.7 Parabrachial Nuclei
		4.8 Nucleus of the Solitary Tract
		4.9 Gut/Adipose Tissue Hormones and Peptides Involved in Feeding
		4.10 Orexigenic Gut Hormones
		4.11 Anorexigenic Gut Hormones
		4.12 Feedback Signal from Visceroceptive Regions
		4.13 Regulation of Eating by Hypothalamus
		4.14 Control of Hedonic Feeding/Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides Involved
		4.15 Dopamine
		4.16 Serotonin
		4.17 Endocannabinoid and Opioid System
		4.18 Homeostatic and Hedonic Systems Cross-Talk
		4.19 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: Implicated Pathways in Diet and Mental Illness
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Gut Microbiome and Mental Illness
		5.3 Inflammation and Mental Illness
		5.4 Oxidative Stress and Mental Illness
		5.5 Nutrient Deficiencies and Mental Illness
		5.6 Food Sensitivities and Mental Illness
			5.6.1 Anxiety Disorders
			5.6.2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
			5.6.3 Depression and Mood Disorders
			5.6.4 Autism Spectrum Disorders
			5.6.5 Schizophrenia
			5.6.6 Food Sensitivities Implicated Pathway in Mental Illness
		5.7 Disrupted Energy Metabolism and Mental Illness
		5.8 Neurotransmitter Precursors Pathway and Mental Illness
		5.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6: Nutrition, the Immune and Inflammatory Systems, and Mental Illness: What Is the Interplay?
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 The Gut-Brain Axis
		6.3 The Role of Nutrition in Inflammation and the Immune System
		6.4 The Intersection of Inflammation, the Immune System, Nutrition, and Mental Health
		6.5 Nutrition, Micronutrients, and Supplements as Interventions for Mental Illness
			6.5.1 Schizophrenia
			6.5.2 Bipolar Disorder
			6.5.3 Depression
			6.5.4 Anxiety Disorders
		6.6 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Diet-Brain Connection and Nutritional Deficiencies
	Chapter 7: The Impact of Gut Microbiota on Mental Health
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 The Gut-Brain Axis
			7.2.1 Definition and Significance
		7.3 Gut Microbiota in Metabolic Disorders
			7.3.1 Gut Microbiota and Obesity
			7.3.2 Gut Microbiota and Hyperglycemia
			7.3.3 Gut Microbiota and Dyslipidemia
			7.3.4 Gut Microbiota and Hypertension
			7.3.5 Gut Microbiota and NAFLD
			7.3.6 Gut Microbiota and OSAHS
		7.4 Mechanism of Action of the Gut Microbiota with Relation to MetS
			7.4.1 Gut Barrier and Inflammation
			7.4.2 SCFAs
			7.4.3 Bile Acids
		7.5 Gut Microbiota-Targeted Therapies in MetS
			7.5.1 Probiotics and Prebiotics
			7.5.2 FMT
			7.5.3 Metabolic Surgery
		7.6 Bidirectional Communication Pathways
			7.6.1 Neural Pathway (Vagus Nerve)
			7.6.2 Hormonal Pathway (HPA Axis)
			7.6.3 Immune Pathway (Cytokines)
			7.6.4 Metabolic Pathway (Short-Chain Fatty Acids)
		7.7 Gut Microbiota Composition and Diversity
			7.7.1 Factors Affecting Gut Microbiota
				7.7.1.1 Genetics
					Diet
					Medications
		7.8 Intestinal Microbial Community Discord (Dysbiosis)
		7.9 Microbiota in the Gut and Mental Illness
			7.9.1 Depression
				7.9.1.1 Preclinical
				7.9.1.2 Clinical
				7.9.1.3 Potential Mechanisms
			7.9.2 Anxiety
				7.9.2.1 Preclinical
				7.9.2.2 Clinical
				7.9.2.3 Potential Mechanisms
			7.9.3 Autism Spectrum Disorder
				7.9.3.1 Preclinical
				7.9.3.2 Clinical
				7.9.3.3 Potential Mechanisms
			7.9.4 Schizophrenia
				7.9.4.1 Preclinical
				7.9.4.2 Clinical
				7.9.4.3 Potential Mechanisms
			7.9.5 Other Mental Health Disorders (E.g., Bipolar Disorder, ADHD)
		7.10 Definition of Probiotics and Prebiotics
		7.11 Types of Probiotics and Prebiotics
			7.11.1 Probiotics
				7.11.1.1 Lactobacillus
				7.11.1.2 Bifidobacteria
				7.11.1.3 Others
			7.11.2 Prebiotics
		7.12 Mechanism of Action
			7.12.1 Probiotics
			7.12.2 Prebiotics
		7.13 Safety Consideration
			7.13.1 Autistic Children
			7.13.2 Depression and Schizophrenia
			7.13.3 Healthy Geriatrics
		7.14 Personalized Microbiome-Based Treatment
		7.15 Novel Psychobiotics
		7.16 Long-Term Manipulation of Microbiota
		7.17 Ethical Consideration
		7.18 Conclusion
		7.19 Recommendation
		References
	Chapter 8: Toward Better Science-Based Advice on Nutrition
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 The Paucity of Empirical Evidence Supporting Eating Effects on Mental Health
			8.2.1 Compliance with Dietary Advice and Depression Risk
			8.2.2 Depression and Pro-inflammatory Diet
			8.2.3 Depression and Dietary Micronutrient Intake
			8.2.4 Dietary Preference and Depression Risk
			8.2.5 A Correlation Between Depression and Diet
		8.3 Ketogenic Diet
			8.3.1 Therapeutic Application of Ketogenic Diet
				8.3.1.1 Epilepsy
				8.3.1.2 Obesity
				8.3.1.3 Autism Spectrum Disorder
				8.3.1.4 Alzheimer’s Disease
		8.4 Conclusion
		References
Chapter 9: Chocolate: Food for Mood
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Hedonic Effects of Chocolate and Orosensory Properties
	9.3 Chocolate’s Psychoactive Compounds
		9.3.1 The Chemistry Behind Theobromine and Caffeine in Chocolate
	9.4 Chocolate: Emotions and Mood
	References
Chapter 10: Measuring Mood in Nutritional Research
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Defining Mood
	10.3 Nutrition and Mood
	10.4 Mood and Carbohydrates
	10.5 Diet, Inflammation, and Depression
	10.6 Brain, Gut Microbiome, and Mood
	10.7 Measuring Mood in Nutritional Research
	10.8 Objective Mood Measurement
	10.9 Subjective Mood Measurement
	10.10 Measuring Multiple Aspects of Mood
		10.10.1 Profile of Mood States (POMS)
		10.10.2 Positive and Negative Activation Schedule (PANAS)
		10.10.3 Bond-Lader Visual Analogue Scale (VAS)
	10.11 Measuring Positive Mood and Psychological Wellbeing
	10.12 Innovative Real-Time Mood Measurement
	10.13 Daily Diary Techniques
	10.14 Experience Sampling Methods
	10.15 Event Sampling
	10.16 Sensor Sampling-Novel Method
	10.17 Remote Food Photography Method
	10.18 Biases in the Mood Rating System
	10.19 Set-Point Biases
	10.20 Granularity of the Scale Biases
	10.21 Labelling of the Scale Biases
	10.22 Items Available for Rating Biases
	10.23 Recommendation
	10.24 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: The Connection Between What We Eat and Our Brains Throughout the Whole Life Journey
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Impact of Individual Nutrients on Cognition and Mental Health
		11.2.1 Individual Nutrients and Cognition
			11.2.1.1 Vitamin B12
			11.2.1.2 Iron
			11.2.1.3 Water
			11.2.1.4 Choline
			11.2.1.5 DHA
			11.2.1.6 Carbohydrates and Cognition
		11.2.2 Individual Nutrients and Mental Health
	11.3 The Impact of Diet Quality and Pattern on Cognition and Mental Health
		11.3.1 Diet Quality and Cognition
		11.3.2 Diet Quality and Mental Health
	11.4 Conclusion
	11.5 Implications and Future Directions
	References
Chapter 12: Diet and Psychosis
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Vitamins in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
		12.2.1 Vitamin B Complex
		12.2.2 Vitamin A
		12.2.3 Vitamin D
		12.2.4 Vitamins C and E
	12.3 Dietary Patterns in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
		12.3.1 Carbohydrates
		12.3.2 Fats
		12.3.3 Amino Acids
		12.3.4 Fruits and Vegetables
		12.3.5 The Mediterranean Diet
		12.3.6 The Ketogenic Diet
		12.3.7 N-Acetylcysteine
		12.3.8 Phytonutrients
		12.3.9 Minerals
	12.4 The Role of the Immune System and Dietary-Induced Inflammation in Psychosis
	12.5 The Gut Microbiome and Psychosis
	12.6 Gluten Sensitivity in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
	12.7 Hunger, Eating Disorders, and Psychosis
	12.8 Role of Diet in Physical Health Care for Psychosis
	12.9 Nutritional Interventions in Psychosis
	12.10 Recommendations and Future Avenues
	References
Chapter 13: Effects of Coffee and Caffeine on Mood and Mood Disorders
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Caffeine Metabolism
	13.3 Caffeine and Mood Disorders
	13.4 Caffeine and Psychiatric Medication Interactions
	References
Chapter 14: Deficiencies in Vitamins and Disease-Specific Diets Impacting Mental Health
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Overview of Vitamins and Mental Health
		14.2.1 Classification of Vitamins
		14.2.2 Importance of Vitamins for Overall Health
		14.2.3 Role of Vitamins in Mental Health and Its Physiology
		14.2.4 Deficiencies in Vitamins and Their Impact on Mental Health
	14.3 Vitamin Deficiency and Mental Health
		14.3.1 Deficiency of Water-Soluble Vitamins
		14.3.2 Deficiency of Fat-Soluble Vitamins
	14.4 Disease-Specific Diets and Mental Health
		14.4.1 Dietary Interventions for ADHD
		14.4.2 Dietary Interventions for Depression
		14.4.3 Dietary Interventions for Autism Spectrum
		14.4.4 Diet-Specific for Other Medical Conditions
	14.5 Nutritional Interventions for Improving Mental Health
		14.5.1 Dietary Recommendations for Optimal Mental Health for each Age Group
		14.5.2 Supplementation and Mental Health
			14.5.2.1 Supplementation in Healthy Individuals
			14.5.2.2 Selective Food Supplementation in the Treatment of Individuals with Psychiatric Disorders
		14.5.3 Importance of Balanced Diet in Mental Health
	14.6 Conclusion and Future Directions
	References
Chapter 15: Ketogenic Diet, Mediterranean Diet, and Mental Health
	15.1 Ketogenic Diet (KD) Overview
	15.2 KD Origins and Historical Significance
	15.3 Components of the Diet and Their Mechanisms of Action
	15.4 Health Benefits of KD
	15.5 Diet Variations and True Nutritional Ketosis
	15.6 KD Relationship with Intermittent Fasting
	15.7 KD and Mental Health
		15.7.1 Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
		15.7.2 Mood and Anxiety Disorders
		15.7.3 Other Psychiatric Disorders
	15.8 Mediterranean Diet
	15.9 Components of the Diet and Their Mechanisms of Action
	15.10 Health Benefits of the Mediterranean Diet
	15.11 Societal and Communal Aspects
	15.12 Mediterranean Diet and Mental Health
		15.12.1 Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
		15.12.2 Mood Disorders
		15.12.3 Insomnia and Other Sleep Disorders
		15.12.4 Neurocognitive Disorders
	References
Chapter 16: Myths About Diet and Mental Health
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Eating Disorders
		16.2.1 Myth 1: Individuals Diagnosed with Eating Disorders Are Underweight
		16.2.2 Myth 2: Eating Disorders Only Occur in Females
		16.2.3 Myth 3: Eating Disorders Are a Choice
		16.2.4 Myth 4: Eating Disorders Cannot Be Treated
		16.2.5 Myth 5: Eating Disorders Are Isolated Conditions
	16.3 Nutrition and Other Mental Health Conditions
		16.3.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder
		16.3.2 Mood Disorders
		16.3.3 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
		16.3.4 Substance Use Disorders (SUD)
	16.4 Food Types, Lifestyles, Diets, and Mental Health
		16.4.1 Red Meat and Mental Health
		16.4.2 Dairy Products and Mental Health
		16.4.3 Tea and Mental Health
		16.4.4 The Ketogenic Diet
		16.4.5 The Gluten-Free Diet
		16.4.6 The Paleolithic Diet
	16.5 Clinical Recommendations and Conclusions
	References
Part III: Nutritional Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders
	Chapter 17: Psychopharmacology of Psychiatric Disorders and Food Intake
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Depression and Mood Disorders
			17.2.1 The Pathophysiology of Depression
				17.2.1.1 Serotonin and Norepinephrine
				17.2.1.2 Dopamine
			17.2.2 Nutritional Factors Influencing Depression and Mood Disorder Pathophysiology
				17.2.2.1 Zinc
				17.2.2.2 Vitamin B6
				17.2.2.3 Iron
		17.3 Schizophrenia
			17.3.1 Schizophrenia Pathophysiology
			17.3.2 The Correlation Between Diet and the Incidence of Schizophrenia
			17.3.3 Mechanisms Through Which Nutrition and Nutritional Factors Influence Schizophrenia Pathophysiology
				17.3.3.1 Neuroinflammation
				17.3.3.2 Oxidative Stress
				17.3.3.3 Dopamine Pathway
				17.3.3.4 Serotonin Pathway
				17.3.3.5 Glutamate Pathway
				17.3.3.6 Homocysteine
				17.3.3.7 Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
		17.4 Alzheimer’s Disease
			17.4.1 Role of Dyslipidemia in Alzheimer Disease
			17.4.2 Role of Insulin Resistance in Alzheimer Disease
			17.4.3 Role of Oxidative Stress in Alzheimer Disease
			17.4.4 Role of Gut Microbiota in Alzheimer Disease
			17.4.5 Role of the Different Supplements and Food Diets in Alzheimer Disease
				17.4.5.1 Omega-3 Fatty Acids
				17.4.5.2 Nutraceutical Formulation
				17.4.5.3 Mediterranean Diet
		References
	Chapter 18: Supplements Effective in the Treatment of Mental Health Conditions
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Melatonin
		18.3 Omega-3 Fatty Acids
		18.4 Vitamins
			18.4.1 Vitamin B1
			18.4.2 Vitamins B9 and B12
			18.4.3 Vitamin D
		18.5 Minerals
		18.6 Amino Acids
		18.7 Probiotics
		18.8 Others (St John’s Wort, Valerian Root, and Ashwagandha)
			18.8.1 St John’s Wort
			18.8.2 Valerian Root
			18.8.3 Ashwagandha
		18.9 Discussion and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 19: Diet and Sleep Disorders
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Amino Acids
			19.2.1 Tryptophan
			19.2.2 Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid and Glutamine
			19.2.3 Tyrosine
		19.3 Fatty Acids
			19.3.1 Saturated Fatty Acids
			19.3.2 Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
			19.3.3 Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
		19.4 Carbohydrates
		19.5 Vitamins
			19.5.1 Vitamin D
			19.5.2 Vitamin C
			19.5.3 Vitamin B6/B12
		19.6 Diet and Sleep
			19.6.1 Chlorophytum Borivilianum (Root) and Velvet Bean
			19.6.2 Aminobutyric Acid and Apocynum Venetum Leaf Extract
			19.6.3 Cherries
		19.7 Sleep and Chronic Disease
		19.8 Diet and Sleep Throughout Life
		19.9 Implication for Clinical Practice and Public Health
		19.10 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 20: Nutritional Interventions vs. Pharmacological Interventions
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Schizophrenia
			20.2.1 Role of Diet Rich with Antioxidants and Amino Acids in the Management of Schizophrenia
			20.2.2 Role of Diet Rich with Fatty Acids in the Management of Schizophrenia
			20.2.3 Role of Diet Rich with Vitamins in the Management of Schizophrenia
			20.2.4 Role of Diet Rich with Minerals in the Management of Schizophrenia
		20.3 Depression and Mood Disorders
			20.3.1 Nutrients and Mood Changes
				20.3.1.1 Micronutrients
					Vitamins
					Magnesium
					Selenium
				20.3.1.2 Macronutrients
					Carbohydrate
					Fats
					Proteins
		20.4 Anxiety Disorders
			20.4.1 Drawbacks of Anxiolytic Drugs
			20.4.2 Nutritional Management of Anxiety
				20.4.2.1 Nutrients of Phytomedicine Source
				20.4.2.2 Nutrients Affecting Microbiota
				20.4.2.3 Curcumin
				20.4.2.4 Vitamin D
				20.4.2.5 Ketogenic-Rich Diet
				20.4.2.6 Gluten
				20.4.2.7 Mediterranean Diet
		References
	Chapter 21: The Western Diet Puzzle: Connecting Metabolic Dysfunction to Cognitive and Neurological Consequences
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Brain Metabolism
			21.2.1 Glucose Metabolism Within the Brain
			21.2.2 Ketone Body Metabolism Within the Brain
		21.3 Western Diet
			21.3.1 Metabolic Syndrome: Linking WD-Induced Systemic Alterations to Chronic Diseases
			21.3.2 Western Diet and the Brain: From Pathology to Neurological Impairment
			21.3.3 WD Impairs Cognitive and Neurological Function
			21.3.4 WD Alters Energy Metabolism Within the Brain
			21.3.5 Neuroinflammation and Oxidative Stress
			21.3.6 WD in Neurological Disorders
				21.3.6.1 WD and TBI
				21.3.6.2 WD and Parkinson’s Disease
				21.3.6.3 WD and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
		21.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 22: Nutritional Psychiatry: The Present State of the Evidence
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 The Conceptual Framework of Nutritional Psychiatry
			22.2.1 Theoretical Underpinnings
			22.2.2 Relationship Between Diet, Brain Function, and Mental Health
		22.3 Overview of Key Nutrients Implicated in Mental Health
			22.3.1 Macronutrients: A Foundation for Brain Health
			22.3.2 Micronutrients: Essential Vitamins and Minerals
				22.3.2.1 Vitamins
				22.3.2.2 Minerals
		22.4 Methodological Approaches in Nutritional Psychiatry Research
			22.4.1 Overview of Research Designs
			22.4.2 Challenges and Limitations
			22.4.3 Criteria for Evaluating the Evidence
		22.5 Evidence on Diet and Major Psychiatric Disorders
			22.5.1 Depression
			22.5.2 Anxiety Disorders
			22.5.3 Schizophrenia
			22.5.4 Bipolar Disorder
			22.5.5 ADHD
			22.5.6 Nutritional Interventions in Psychiatry
			22.5.7 Comparison with Traditional Psychiatric Treatments
		22.6 Challenges and Future Directions in Nutritional Psychiatry
			22.6.1 Complexity of Diet–Brain–Behavior Relationships
			22.6.2 Nutritional Recommendations in Psychiatric Practice
			22.6.3 The Need for Personalized Nutrition Approaches in Mental Health Care
			22.6.4 Emerging Areas of Research
		22.7 Practical Implications for Clinicians and Patients
			22.7.1 Guidelines for Incorporating Nutritional Psychiatry into Practice
			22.7.2 Recommendations for Patients on Optimizing Diet for Mental Health
		22.8 Summary and Conclusion
		References