Nutrition and Enhanced Sports Performance: Muscle Building, Endurance, and Strength

Front Cover......Page 1
Nutrition and Enhanced Sports Performance......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 16
List of Contributors......Page 18
I: Nutrition and Human Health......Page 24
Definitions......Page 26
Nutritional Supplement Recommendations for Athletes......Page 27
References......Page 29
Glycemic Load......Page 32
Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load and Metabolic Responses......Page 33
Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load and Chronic Disease Risk......Page 34
Improvement of Physical Performance......Page 39
Ingestion of Carbohydrates During Exercise Following a Pre-Exercise Meal......Page 44
Glycemic Load, Metabolic Responses and Exercise Performance......Page 45
Conclusions......Page 47
References......Page 48
Introduction......Page 52
Testosterone and AS Combined with Resistance Training......Page 53
Conclusions......Page 54
Creatine Synthesis and Mechanisms of Action......Page 55
Conclusion......Page 58
Mechanisms of Action......Page 59
Caffeine......Page 60
Psychophysiological Mechanisms......Page 61
References......Page 62
II: Exercise and Human Health......Page 66
The Heart......Page 68
Peripheral Circulation......Page 69
Assessment of Functional Capacity......Page 70
All-cause Mortality......Page 71
Exercise and Primary Prevention......Page 72
Body Weight......Page 73
Diabetes Mellitus......Page 74
References......Page 75
Blood Pressure......Page 78
Visceral Adiposity......Page 79
Resistance Training and Resting Energy Expenditure......Page 80
Resistance Training and Daily Physical Activity......Page 81
Resistance Training During Energy Restriction......Page 82
The Role of Resistance Training Versus Aerobic Exercise and Weight Maintenance......Page 83
References......Page 84
Acute and Chronic Psychological Effects of Exercise......Page 88
Motivation for Exercise Behavior: Why do People Exercise?......Page 89
The Endorphin Hypothesis......Page 90
The “Runners’ High” Phenomenon and the Acute Psychological Effects of Exercise......Page 91
Epidemiology of Exercise Addiction......Page 93
References......Page 94
Bone Health......Page 98
Definitions: Osteopenia, Osteoporosis and Low Bone Mineral Density......Page 100
Bone and the Young Athlete......Page 101
Bone and the Male Athlete......Page 102
References......Page 103
Introduction......Page 106
Exercise and Upper Respiratory Tract Infection......Page 107
Exercise and Inflammation......Page 108
Delayed-Onset Muscle Damage......Page 109
Carbohydrates......Page 110
Amino Acids......Page 111
Conclusion......Page 112
References......Page 113
CD4 T Helper Cells......Page 118
T Cell Proliferation......Page 119
Muscle Damage and Leukocyte infiltration......Page 120
Muscle Damage Following Resistance Training and Eccentrically Biased Exercise......Page 121
References......Page 122
III: Sports and Nutrition......Page 126
Energy......Page 128
Protein and Essential Amino Acids......Page 129
Vitamin B12......Page 130
Recommended Practices when Consuming a Vegetarian Diet......Page 131
Vegetarian Diets and Athletic Performance......Page 132
Vegetarian Diets and Physical Performance of the General Population......Page 133
Nutrient Adequacy......Page 134
References......Page 135
Introduction......Page 138
Carbohydrates......Page 139
Proteins......Page 141
Micronutrients......Page 142
Role of Hydration......Page 143
Rapid Weight Loss......Page 144
Supplements for Combat Athletes......Page 145
References......Page 147
Energy Balance......Page 152
Organ-Tissue Level Body Composition......Page 153
References......Page 155
The Energy Cost of Locomotion......Page 156
Aerodynamic and Non-Aerodynamic Cost of Locomotion......Page 157
The Determinants of the External Work in Walking and Running......Page 160
Gradient Locomotion......Page 161
The Determinants of C in Cycling (the External Work)......Page 162
Efficiency in Land Locomotion......Page 163
References......Page 164
Energetics and Biomechanics of Aquatic Locomotion......Page 166
Effects of Training and Skill Level on C......Page 168
The Effect of Age and Gender on C......Page 169
Nutrition Requirements and Substrate Utilization in Swimming......Page 170
Rowing and Kayaking (Boat Locomotion)......Page 171
References......Page 172
Improving Concentration and Focus......Page 174
Enhancing Strength, Power, and Explosiveness: Anabolic Steroids and Peptide Hormones......Page 175
Peptide Hormone Anabolic Drugs......Page 176
Anti-inflammatory Drugs and Analgesics......Page 177
Performance-Enhancing Supplements......Page 178
Ergogenic Performance-Enhancing Supplements: Proteins, Pro-hormones and Creatine......Page 179
References......Page 181
Change in Body Mass During an Ultra-Endurance Performance......Page 184
Dehydration, Fluid Intake and Fluid Overload......Page 186
Fluid Overload and Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia......Page 187
Intake of Fat......Page 188
Intake of Ergogenic Supplements, Vitamins and Minerals......Page 189
References......Page 190
Energy Expenditure and Body Composition......Page 194
Exercise Adaptations......Page 196
Nutritional Practices......Page 198
Effects of Nutrition on Body Composition and Performance......Page 200
Conclusions and Areas for Future Research......Page 202
References......Page 203
Introduction......Page 206
Endogenous Androgens......Page 207
Effect on Athletes and Adverse Effects......Page 208
Detection Method......Page 209
Detection Methods......Page 210
Metabolic Modulators and Related Substances......Page 212
Direct Method of Detecting ESA Abuse......Page 213
Masking Agents......Page 214
References......Page 215
The Paralympic Games......Page 220
Physical Impairments......Page 221
Energy Utilization......Page 222
Sport-Specific Nutrition......Page 223
Skating and Skiing......Page 224
References......Page 225
Origins of Sports Beverages......Page 228
Present State of Sports Beverages......Page 229
Overview of Soy Protein Beverages......Page 230
Whey Protein Beverages......Page 231
Future of Sports Beverages......Page 232
References......Page 233
IV: Molecular Mechanisms......Page 234
Background......Page 236
Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)......Page 237
References......Page 238
Muscle Growth......Page 240
mTOR Signaling Pathway......Page 241
mTOR in Muscle Hypertrophy......Page 243
mTOR in Muscle Atrophy......Page 245
Conclusions......Page 246
References......Page 247
Heat shock protein family......Page 252
Regulation of stress proteins in skeletal muscle......Page 253
Stress proteins and exercise......Page 254
Stress proteins and dietary supplements......Page 255
References......Page 256
History......Page 260
Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling......Page 261
β-Adrenergic Receptor Signaling......Page 262
MicroRNAs......Page 263
Myostatin Signaling......Page 264
AMPK Signaling......Page 265
References......Page 266
Introduction......Page 270
The Role of IGF-I in Muscle Growth......Page 271
The Role of Mechanosensors in Muscle Growth......Page 272
The Role of Amino Acids in Muscle Growth......Page 274
Chronic Low-Grade Inflammation and Sarcopenia......Page 275
Combating Sarcopenia......Page 276
The Calpain Protein Degradation System......Page 277
The Ubiquitin–Proteasome Pathway......Page 278
References......Page 280
The Nitric Oxide Synthases......Page 288
Skeletal Muscle Functions Mediated By NO......Page 289
Mitochondrial Biogenesis......Page 290
Skeletal Muscle Blood Flow......Page 291
Nutritional Supplementation for Enhanced Muscle Hypertrophy in Humans......Page 292
References......Page 293
Introduction......Page 298
Recommended Nutrition Criteria for Better Sports Performance......Page 299
Role of Nitric Oxide in Nutritional Supplements......Page 300
Biochemistry of Nitrosative Protein Modifications in Muscles......Page 302
References......Page 303
Current Knowledge on Skeletal Muscle Blood Flow Control......Page 306
Blood Flow Responses to Acute Aerobic Exercise......Page 307
Other Hemorheological Factors, Blood Flow and Oxygen Delivery......Page 308
NO Metabolism......Page 309
Antioxidants......Page 310
Conclusion......Page 311
References......Page 312
Exercise Performance and Heritability......Page 318
Alpha Actinin 3 (ACTN3 R577X)......Page 319
Myostatin (MSTN K153R)......Page 320
Nitric Oxide Synthase 3 (NOS3-786 T/C and Glu298Asp)......Page 321
Glossary......Page 322
References......Page 323
Bioactive Proteins Secreted from Skeletal Muscle Cells in Response to Exercise......Page 328
SPARC is a Cancer Preventive Protein Secreted by Skeletal Muscle......Page 330
Perspective......Page 331
References......Page 332
V: Minerals and Supplements in Muscle Building......Page 336
Introduction......Page 338
Energy Restriction, Testosterone Levels and Hypertrophy......Page 340
Influence of Diet on Testosterone Levels......Page 341
Mechanisms Whereby Insulin Could Alter Testosterone Levels......Page 343
Effect of Resistance Training Plus Dietary Supplementation on Testosterone Levels......Page 344
References......Page 345
Changes in Circulating Immune Cell Numbers......Page 348
Changes in Humoral Immune Factors......Page 349
Baker’s Yeast Glucan......Page 350
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 352
References......Page 353
Endurance Exercise......Page 356
Competitive Sport......Page 357
McArdle Disease—A Human “Knockout” Model of Glycogen-Free/Alactic Exercise......Page 358
Modulation of Muscle Glycogen II: Low Carbohydrate/Ketogenic Diet......Page 359
Repletion of Muscle Glycogen I: Glycemic Index......Page 360
Repletion of Muscle Glycogen I: Carbohydrate Plus Protein Combinations......Page 361
Conclusion......Page 362
References......Page 363
Introduction......Page 366
Withania as Adaptogen......Page 367
Rhodiola as Adaptogen......Page 368
References......Page 371
Nutrition......Page 374
Clinical Aspects......Page 375
References......Page 376
Estimating Energy Needs of Athletes and Active Individuals......Page 378
Energy Needs of Strength and Power Athletes......Page 379
Carbohydrate Types and Quality......Page 380
Carbohydrate Intake During Exercise......Page 381
Low-Carbohydrate High-Protein Diet: Is it a Good Idea for Athletes?......Page 382
Protein Requirements of Endurance Athletes......Page 383
Protein Requirements of Strength and Power Athletes......Page 384
Structure and Function of Fats......Page 385
Fat Requirements of Athletes......Page 386
References......Page 387
Introduction......Page 390
Amino Acids Metabolism in Skeletal Muscle......Page 391
Molecular Pathways of Amino Acids in Skeletal Muscle......Page 392
Effects of Amino Acids Supplementation on Muscle Mass and Strength......Page 393
Dietary Sources and Practical Application of Protein Supplementation......Page 395
Amino Acids—Practical Recommendations......Page 396
Conclusion and Perspectives......Page 397
References......Page 398
Aerobic Performance and Endurance Activities......Page 400
Cognitive Aspects......Page 401
Older Individuals......Page 402
Drink Composition and Choice of Rehydration Beverage......Page 403
During Exercise......Page 404
References......Page 405
Creatine Biosynthesis, Uptake, and Degradation......Page 408
Body Mass, Body Composition, and Body Water......Page 410
Chronic Anaerobic Adaptations......Page 411
Muscular Hypertrophy and Activation of Satellite Cells......Page 412
Acute......Page 413
Substrate Use......Page 414
Therapeutic use of Creatine Supplementation......Page 415
References......Page 416
Introduction......Page 418
Cellular Mechanism of Intestinal Absorption......Page 419
Creatine Absorption in the GIT......Page 420
Human Oral Bioavailability of Creatine Supplements......Page 421
Absorption Characteristics of Alternative Forms of Creatine......Page 422
References......Page 424
Introduction......Page 428
Nitric Oxide......Page 429
Fatty Acid Oxidation and Muscle Metabolism......Page 430
Muscle Injury and Soreness......Page 431
Summary of Carnitine for Athletic Populations......Page 432
References......Page 433
Daily Requirements......Page 438
Habitual High Protein Intake......Page 439
Amino Acids......Page 440
Absorption Rate......Page 441
Ingestion Timing......Page 442
References......Page 443
Ornithine, Arginine and Citrulline: Biogenesis and Metabolism......Page 446
Effects of Ornithine, Arginine and Citrulline Supplementation on Nitric Oxide Synthesis and Performance......Page 447
Exercise and Ammonia......Page 448
Effects of Ornithine, Arginine and Citrulline Supplementation on Ammonia and Performance......Page 449
Other Effects of Ornithine, Arginine and Citrulline Supplementation......Page 451
References......Page 452
Isokinetic Dynamometer Studies......Page 456
Cycle Ergometry Studies......Page 457
Metabolism......Page 458
Conclusion......Page 460
References......Page 461
Arginine......Page 462
Skeletal Muscle Health......Page 463
Fat Loss......Page 465
Arginine Synthesis......Page 466
Conclusion......Page 467
References......Page 468
Pharmacological Effects......Page 470
Nutritional Background......Page 471
Body Mass and Composition......Page 472
Toxicity......Page 473
Zinc and Sports Performance......Page 474
References......Page 476
An Overview on HMB Metabolism......Page 478
HMB Supplementation......Page 479
HMB Supplementation in Trained Individuals and Athletic Population......Page 480
HMB on Protein Synthesis and Muscle Growth......Page 481
HMB on Protein Degradation......Page 483
References......Page 484
Part 1: Sports Performance......Page 488
Part 3: Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Astaxanthin......Page 492
References......Page 493
Ursolic Acid Inhibits Muscle Atrophy......Page 496
Ursolic Acid Decreases Body Fat and Improves Body Composition......Page 497
Ursolic Acid Mechanism of Action......Page 498
Maslinic Acid......Page 499
References......Page 500
Introduction......Page 502
Myokines, Inflammation, Recovery and Overtraining Syndrome......Page 503
Exercise and Inflammation......Page 504
Biological Potency of Calcium Fructoborate......Page 505
References......Page 506
Caffeine Pharmacology......Page 510
Performance Effects......Page 511
Adenosine Receptor Antagonism......Page 512
Ion Flux in Skeletal Muscle......Page 513
Sources of Caffeine......Page 514
Tolerance and Withdrawal......Page 515
References......Page 516
Performance......Page 520
Mitochondrial Biogenesis......Page 521
Future Research Areas......Page 522
References......Page 523
Modern Extracts......Page 524
Human-Feeding Trials......Page 525
Summary......Page 526
References......Page 527
VI: Dietary Recommendations......Page 530
Introduction......Page 532
Protein Requirements for the Bodybuilder......Page 533
Whole-Foods Protein Sources......Page 534
Whey......Page 535
Milk Proteins......Page 536
Protein Timing for Bodybuilders......Page 537
Energy Requirements......Page 538
Carbohydrates......Page 539
Conclusion......Page 540
References......Page 541
Introduction......Page 546
Carbohydrate......Page 547
Fat......Page 548
Hydration......Page 549
Disclaimer......Page 550
References......Page 551
VII: Concluding Remarks......Page 554
56 Commentary......Page 556
Index......Page 558