Novel Food Processing Technologies

Novel Food Processing Technologies......Page 1
Copyright......Page 9
Preface......Page 11
Contents......Page 13
Contributors......Page 16
A. Chronology......Page 20
B. Basic Definitions......Page 23
II. PULSED ELECTRIC FIELD TREATMENT UNIT......Page 24
A. High-Voltage Pulse Generator......Page 25
B. Treatment Chamber......Page 28
D. Control and Monitoring Devices......Page 34
III. MICROBIAL INACTIVATION MECHANISM......Page 35
1. Electric Field Intensity......Page 37
3. Pulse Shape......Page 38
B. Biological Factors......Page 40
2. Type of Microorganism......Page 41
3. Physiological State of Microorganisms......Page 42
C. Factors Related to Treated Products......Page 43
1. Composition......Page 44
2. Temperature......Page 46
V. MODELING PEF MICROBIAL INACTIVATION......Page 47
VI. ALTERNATIVE APPLICATIONS OF PEF TECHNOLOGY......Page 51
B. PEF-Assisted Drying......Page 52
D. Preservation of Solid and Semisolid Foods by PEF......Page 53
E. Other Uses for PEF Technology......Page 54
REFERENCES......Page 55
II. MECHANISMS OF INACTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS BY PEF......Page 64
B. Sublethal Injury......Page 68
III. FACTORS DETERMINING MICROBIAL INACTIVATION BY PEF......Page 69
1. Electric Field Strength......Page 70
2. Treatment Time......Page 71
4. Frequency......Page 72
6. Specific Energy......Page 73
1. Intrinsic Resistance of Microorganisms......Page 74
2. Growth Conditions......Page 75
4. Recovery Conditions: Sublethal Injuries......Page 77
1. Conductivity......Page 78
2. pH......Page 80
4. Composition......Page 81
IV. KINETICS OF MICROBIAL INACTIVATION BY PEF......Page 82
REFERENCES......Page 83
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 88
1. Electric Field Intensity (E)......Page 89
3. Pulse Shape......Page 90
B. Product Factors......Page 91
III. INACTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS: DATA AND KINETIC MODELS......Page 93
IV. KINETIC MODELS OF INACTIVATION......Page 98
V. CONCLUSION......Page 100
REFERENCES......Page 101
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 105
II. EFFECT OF HIPEF ON ENZYMES......Page 106
A. Pectin Methylesterases......Page 110
B. Polyphenoloxidases......Page 111
C. Polygalacturonase......Page 112
F. Proteases......Page 113
H. Other Enzymes......Page 114
III. EFFECT OF HIPEF ON PROTEINS, VITAMINS, AND FLAVORS......Page 115
B. Carotenoids......Page 116
C. Proteins......Page 117
IV. FINAL REMARKS......Page 119
REFERENCES......Page 120
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 123
II. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIC FIELD EFFECTS ON BIOLOGICAL OBJECTS......Page 124
A. Transmembrane Potential......Page 125
B. Models of Nonthermal Damage by Electric Fields......Page 126
2. Suspension of Cells......Page 128
3. Cells in Biological Tissue......Page 130
III. IMPACT OF PULSED ELECTRIC FIELD ON SOLID–LIQUID EXPRESSION......Page 131
B. Solid–Liquid Expression with Intermediate Pulsed Electric Field Treatment......Page 132
1. Sugar Beets......Page 133
2. Apples......Page 136
C. Modeling of Solid–Liquid Expression Enhanced by Pulsed Electric Field......Page 138
A. Incident of Moderate Electric Field Pulses Pretreatment on Diffusion Coefficient of Apple Slices in Large Volume of Water......Page 140
B. Enhancing Solid–Liquid Leaching Process by Use of Moderate Electric Field Pulses......Page 141
REFERENCES......Page 145
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 149
A. Inactivation of Natural Flora, and Shelf Life......Page 154
B. Pectin Methyl Esterase Inactivation......Page 155
C. Effect of PEF on Quality Factors......Page 156
D. Inactivation of Yeasts......Page 158
E. Inactivation of Leuconostoc mesenteroides, E. coli, Listeria, and L. plantarum......Page 159
REFERENCES......Page 160
A. Dehydration of Fruits and Vegetables......Page 163
1. Egg Products......Page 164
C. Structure......Page 165
1. Microorganisms......Page 166
IV. CONSUMER PERCEPTION......Page 167
1. Chamber Design......Page 168
1. Extreme Results......Page 170
VII. CONCLUSIONS......Page 171
REFERENCES......Page 172
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 175
II. EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION PRINCIPLES......Page 176
A. Basic Thermodynamics......Page 177
B. Effects of HP on Food Components and Reactions......Page 179
4. Activation Volumes of Chemical Reactions......Page 180
C. Phase Changes......Page 181
1. Fundamentals......Page 182
2. Variables......Page 183
3. Application of Combined Factors......Page 187
4. Basic and Probabilistic Kinetics (D, DeltaV Not Equal To, Z)......Page 188
B. Inhibition of Enzymes......Page 190
2. Milk Products......Page 192
5. Vegetables......Page 193
8. Other Products......Page 194
REFERENCES......Page 195
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 200
A. Development of an Equation of State for Water in the Fluid Region......Page 201
1. Determining the Ideal Part of Helmholtz Free Energy......Page 202
B. Thermodynamic Properties of Fluid Water......Page 203
C. Thermophysical Properties of Fluid Water......Page 204
D. Pressure Dependence of Some Thermodynamic and Thermophysical Properties of Water......Page 206
III. THERMODYNAMIC AND THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FOODS AT HIGH PRESSURES......Page 210
A. Developing an Equation to Estimate the Adiabatic Temperature Increase......Page 212
B. Adiabatic Temperature Increase of a Water System......Page 214
C. Compression Temperature Increase in Food Systems Other than Water......Page 215
D. Energy Balance and Compression Work......Page 216
V. RESEARCH NEEDS......Page 217
APPENDIX......Page 218
REFERENCES......Page 221
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 223
II. PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE......Page 224
A. Sporulation and Structure......Page 227
B. Germination and Outgrowth......Page 228
C. Resistance......Page 229
IV. MODELING APPROACH......Page 230
V. SPORES UNDER PRESSURE......Page 237
VI. CONCLUSION......Page 242
VII. OUTLOOK......Page 244
REFERENCES......Page 245
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 249
A. High-Pressure-Assisted Freezing......Page 251
B. High-Pressure Shift Freezing (PSF)......Page 252
II. MODELING HIGH-PRESSURE FREEZING PROCESSES......Page 253
A. Pressure Freezing in Model Food Gels......Page 257
B. Pressure Shift Freezing in Meat......Page 258
C. Pressure Shift Freezing in Vegetables and Fruit......Page 261
D. Protein Denaturation and Microbial Inactivation......Page 266
III. MODELING HIGH-PRESSURE THAWING PROCESSES......Page 268
A. High-Pressure Thawing in Some Products......Page 272
REFERENCES......Page 273
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 277
A. Thermal Gelatinization, Gelation, and Retrogradation......Page 278
1. Powder......Page 280
3. Aqueous Medium......Page 281
C. Starch Gelatinization Vs. Protein Denaturation......Page 290
III. NONSTARCH POLYSACCHARIDES......Page 291
IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 295
REFERENCES......Page 296
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 299
II. EFFECT OF HIGH PRESSURE ON MICROBIAL INACTIVATION IN PLANT FOODS......Page 300
III. EFFECT OF HIGH PRESSURE ON ENZYME INACTIVATION IN PLANT FOODS......Page 303
IV. EFFECT OF HIGH PRESSURE ON STRUCTURE AND TEXTURE OF PLANT MATERIALS......Page 306
A. Physicochemical Changes......Page 307
B. Physical Changes......Page 308
C. Biochemical Changes......Page 309
1. High-Pressure Freezing......Page 311
2. High-Pressure Thawing......Page 312
V. EFFECT OF HIGH PRESSURE ON SENSORIAL QUALITY OF PLANT FOODS......Page 313
VI. EFFECTS OF HIGH PRESSURE ON THE NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH-RELATED COMPOUNDS OF PLANT MATERIALS......Page 316
VII. FINAL REMARKS......Page 320
REFERENCES......Page 321
II. APPEARANCE OF PRESSURIZED MUSCLE......Page 326
A. Morphological and Textural Changes......Page 328
B. Effect of High Pressure on Enzymes of Muscles......Page 336
IV. EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON SHELF LIFE OF MUSCLES......Page 339
V. HIGH PRESSURE ON FISH AND MEAT PRODUCTS......Page 341
A. Combined High Pressure–Heat Treatments......Page 342
B. Chemical Changes Induced by High-Pressure Treatment......Page 345
C. High Pressure and Temperature Stability of Muscle Proteins......Page 347
D. Influence of Salt Content......Page 348
E. Storage of Pressurized or Pressure-Heated Fish and Meat Products......Page 349
REFERENCES......Page 351
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 358
A. Milk......Page 359
B. Cheese......Page 361
2. Inactivation or Reduction of Pathogenic and Spoilage Microorganisms in Cheese......Page 362
3. Cheese-Ripening Acceleration......Page 363
C. Yogurt and Fermented Milks......Page 364
D. Cream, Butter, and Ice Cream......Page 365
A. Effect on Microorganisms: Inoculated and Indigenous Microbiota......Page 367
B. Effect on Functional Properties and Constituents......Page 368
REFERENCES......Page 370
II. HIGH PRESSURE IS ALREADY COMMERCIAL......Page 375
IV. FRESHLIKE, NATURAL-QUALITY FOODS......Page 376
V. JUICES AND SMOOTHIES......Page 377
VII. CHICKEN......Page 378
VIII. HAM......Page 379
X. HIGH-PRESSURE EQUIPMENT......Page 380
B. Continuous......Page 381
XII. VESSELS FOR ISOSTATIC PRESSURE......Page 382
XIII. VESSEL FATIGUE......Page 383
XIV. PUMPING......Page 384
XVII. LOAD DENSITY......Page 385
XIX. ADIABATIC HEAT......Page 386
XX. STERILIZATION......Page 387
II. BENEFICIAL CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IRRADIATION ON FOODS......Page 388
2. Proteins......Page 389
4. Vitamins and Minerals......Page 390
B. Electron Beams......Page 391
C. Converted X-rays......Page 392
A. Insect Disinfestation......Page 393
D. Sterilization......Page 394
VII. CRITERIA FOR JUDGING THE EFFICACY OF FOOD IRRADIATION AS A PROCESS......Page 395
VIII. DOSIMETRY FOR FOOD IRRADIATORS......Page 396
IX. RADIATION TOLERANCE OF FOODS......Page 399
X. UPPER IRRADIATION DOSE FOR FOODS......Page 400
B. Microbiological Safety......Page 401
1. Feeding Studies......Page 402
1. Radiation Source......Page 403
3. Hardware......Page 404
1. Gamma Irradiators......Page 406
C. Radiation Safety......Page 408
XIV. PACKAGING OF IRRADIATED FOODS......Page 409
XV. MARKERS OF IRRADIATED FOODS......Page 410
XVI. ECONOMICS AND MARKETING OF IRRADIATED FOODS......Page 412
XVIII. FOOD IRRADIATION AROUND THE WORLD......Page 413
XIX. BENEFITS OF FOOD IRRADIATION......Page 414
REFERENCES......Page 415
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 418
II. MICROBIAL CONTROL BY PHYSICAL METHODS......Page 419
B. Ultraviolet Technology......Page 420
1. Terminology......Page 422
C. Application Guidelines......Page 424
D. Flow Rate......Page 425
F. Type and Number of Organisms......Page 426
G. Inactivation Kinetics......Page 427
1. Ultraviolet Sensors......Page 428
I. Use of Ultraviolet Radiation for Juice Treatment......Page 429
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 432
REFERENCES......Page 433
II. CAVITATION......Page 435
III. MICROBIAL INACTIVATION BY ULTRASOUND......Page 438
IV. EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON MICROBIAL ULTRASONIC RESISTANCE......Page 439
A. The Amplitude of Ultrasonic Waves and Its Effect......Page 442
B. The Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 443
C. The Effect of Temperature......Page 445
VI. MECHANISM OF ACTION......Page 447
VII. IS ULTRASOUND A POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE TO CURRENT HEAT TREATMENTS?......Page 450
REFERENCES......Page 451
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 455
A. Types of Magnetic Fields......Page 456
A. Equipment for Generation of Magnetic Field Pulses......Page 457
B. Description of Experiments at WSU......Page 458
C. E. coli, S. cerevisiae, and L. innocua Under 18-T Pulsed Magnetic Field......Page 459
A. Equipment for Generation of an 18-T Static Magnetic Field......Page 460
1. E. coli and S. cerevisiae Under 18-T Static Magnetic Field......Page 461
V. FINAL REMARKS......Page 462
REFERENCES......Page 463
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 464
A. Hurdle Technology......Page 465
B. Homeostasis, Sublethal Injury, and Hurdle Technology......Page 466
II. MICROBIAL INACTIVATION THROUGH COMBINATIONS OF NONTHERMAL TECHNOLOGIES WITH OTHER PRESERVATION FACTORS......Page 467
1. High Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 468
4. Irradiation......Page 473
B. Low pH......Page 474
D. Antimicrobials......Page 475
E. Refrigeration......Page 476
III. INACTIVATION OF ENZYMES RELATED TO FOOD QUALITY BY THE COMBINATION OF NONTHERMAL TECHNOLOGIES WITH OTHER PRESERVATION FACTORS......Page 477
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 479
REFERENCES......Page 480
C. History......Page 487
E. Advantages and Disadvantages......Page 488
A. Microbiological Safety......Page 489
A. Ingredients......Page 490
C. Large-Scale Cooking and Cooling Equipment......Page 491
IV. COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING......Page 492
A. Samples, Processing, and Testing......Page 493
C. Effect of Sous Vide/Freezing on Carrot Texture......Page 495
D. Effect of Sous Vide/Freezing on Carrot Color......Page 496
E. Effect of Sous Vide/Freezing on Soluble Solids Content......Page 497
VIII. CONCLUSIONS......Page 498
REFERENCES......Page 499
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 501
II. MICROBIAL DEATH KINETICS......Page 503
IV. OHMIC AND MODERATE ELECTRIC FIELD (MEF) PROCESSING APPLICATIONS......Page 504
A. Sterilization......Page 505
F. Extraction Enhancement......Page 506
REFERENCES......Page 507
II. DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES......Page 510
III. PRINCIPLE OF RADIO-FREQUENCY HEATING......Page 511
B. Power Dissipation......Page 512
C. Power Penetration Depth......Page 513
IV. DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF FOODS AT RADIO FREQUENCIES......Page 514
A. Radio Frequency Generators......Page 516
B. Radio Frequency Applicators......Page 520
B. Early Research on Radio-Frequency Pasteurization of Foods......Page 522
C. Early Research on RF Sterilization......Page 523
D. Recent Developments in Radio Frequency Pasteurization and Sterilization Research......Page 524
E. Developments in Radio-Frequency Pest Control in Postharvest Operations......Page 526
VII. COMPUTER SIMULATION OF RADIO-FREQUENCY HEATING SYSTEMS......Page 529
VIII. FINAL REMARKS......Page 531
REFERENCES......Page 532
I. INTRODUCTION: AN OVERVIEW......Page 534
A. Thawing–Tempering......Page 535
C. Cooking......Page 536
F. Food Sterilization and Pasteurization......Page 537
G. Food Dehydration......Page 538
1. Vacuum Drying and Freeze Drying......Page 539
H. Future of the Application of Microwaves in the Food Industry: Economic Considerations......Page 540
REFERENCES......Page 541
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 547
II. SOURCES OF FUNCTIONAL FOOD INGREDIENTS......Page 548
III. EXTRACTION TECHNOLOGY IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY......Page 549
IV. EXTRACTION WITH SUPERCRITICAL FLUIDS......Page 550
V. DESIGN OF SUPERCRITICAL FLUID EXTRACTION PROCESSES......Page 553
VI. FRACTIONATION WITH SUPERCRITICAL FLUIDS; PREPARATIVE SCALE SUPERCRITICAL FLUID CHROMATOGRAPHY......Page 557
REFERENCES......Page 559
A. What is Predictive Modeling?......Page 562
1. Different Types of Predictive Models......Page 563
A. Pathogen Modeling Program......Page 565
C. CCFRA FORECAST System......Page 566
1. MicroFit™......Page 569
E. Comparison of Modeling Systems......Page 570
III. APPLICATION OF MODELING SYSTEMS TO THE FOOD INDUSTRY......Page 572
2. Product Formulation......Page 573
C. Setting Microbiological Specifications......Page 574
IV. WHAT DOES THE INDUSTRY THINK?......Page 576
3. If You Do Not Use Modeling Systems, Can You Describe Why?......Page 577
4. Frequency of Usage of Modeling Systems......Page 578
7. If Predictive Models Were No Longer Available, Could You Describe How This Would Affect You?......Page 579
8. What Improvements Would You Like to See in Modeling Systems?......Page 580
9. Conclusions from Industry Survey......Page 581
VI. CONCLUSIONS......Page 582
VII. THE FUTURE OF PREDICTIVE MODELING SYSTEMS WITHIN THE FOOD INDUSTRY......Page 583
REFERENCES......Page 584
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 586
II. MODELS AND MODELING......Page 587
A. Primary Models......Page 589
B. Secondary Models......Page 591
III. APPLICATION OF PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY TO THE ANALYSIS OF HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS (HACCP)......Page 593
IV. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY......Page 595
REFERENCES......Page 596
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 598
II. CRITICAL FACTORS IN DATA GENERATION AND EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN......Page 599
A. Current Models for Microbial Growth, Survival, and Death......Page 602
C. Accepting a Model......Page 603
A. Methodology......Page 604
1. Graphical Methods......Page 605
2. Statistical Methods......Page 606
Example I. Saccharomyces cerevisiae resistance to the action of ultrasound and mild heat treatment......Page 608
Example II. Inactivation of Lactobacillus plantarum after pulse electric fields......Page 609
Example IV. Use of natural antimicrobials inhibiting mold growth......Page 610
REFERENCES......Page 612
I. PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY IN FOOD......Page 615
II. PREDICTIVE MICROBIAL MODELS IN FOOD......Page 617
III. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERT SYSTEMS......Page 618
IV. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL MODELS......Page 620
A. The Artificial Neural Networks Process......Page 625
V. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK MODELLING OF MICROBIAL GROWTH IN FOOD......Page 627
REFERENCES......Page 630
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 634
II. PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY......Page 635
A. Classification of Predictive Models......Page 636
B. Applications of Predictive Models......Page 637
C. Growth/No-Growth Interface Probabilistic Modeling......Page 638
III. PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES......Page 639
A. Probabilistic Modeling of Zygosaccharomyces bailii Inhibition by Hurdle Technology in Model Systems......Page 641
B. Probabilistic Modeling of Z. bailii Inhibition by High Pressure in Model Systems......Page 643
C. Probabilistic Modeling of Byssochlamys nivea Ascospores Inhibition by High Pressure in Fruit Juices......Page 644
D. Probabilistic Modeling of Antimicrobial and Ultrasound Treatment Effects on Selected Foodborne Mold Spores......Page 648
IV. FINAL REMARKS......Page 650
REFERENCES......Page 653
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 657
II. CALCULATING MICROBIAL INACTIVATION......Page 659
III. THE MODEL......Page 661
IV. SIMULTATION OF SURVIVAL CURVES......Page 665
V. MODEL VALIDATION......Page 667
VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 669
REFERENCES......Page 670
I. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND MINIMAL PROCESSING IN THE CONTEXT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS......Page 672
II. HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT......Page 674
1. Application of ISO 9001:2000 in the Food and Drink Industry......Page 676
B. Safety Management and Public Policies......Page 677
III. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 680
REFERENCES......Page 681