Novel Drug Targets With Traditional Herbal Medicines: Scientific and Clinical Evidence

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
1: Achillea biebersteinii Afan.
	1.1	 Introduction
	1.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	1.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	1.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
	1.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities
		1.5.1	 Antioxidant Activity
		1.5.2	 Antinociceptive and Analgesic Activity
		1.5.3	 Wound Healing Activity
		1.5.4	 Central Nervous System Activity
		1.5.5	 Anticancer Activity
		1.5.6	 Insecticidal Activity
		1.5.7	 Antidiabetic Activity
		1.5.8	 Antimicrobial, Antifungal, and Antiprotozoal Activity
		1.5.9	 Protective of the Liver and Kidney
		1.5.10	 Other Activities
	1.6	 Clinical Studies
	1.7	 Toxicological Studies
	1.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	1.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	1.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
2: Aesculus hippocastanum L.
	2.1	 Introduction
		2.1.1	 Description of Aesculus hippocastanum L.
		2.1.2	 Synonyms
		2.1.3	 Local Names
		2.1.4	 Occurrence/Habitat
		2.1.5	 Registered Pharmacopoeias and Monographs
		2.1.6	 Importance
		2.1.7	 Objective of This Chapter
	2.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	2.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses: In Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	2.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
	2.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities (All Major Therapeutic Activity with In Vitro and In Vivo Studies, Mechanism of Action)
		2.5.1	 In Vitro Assays
			Anti-inflammatory Activity
			Antioxidant Activity
			Antibacterial Activity
			Antifungal Activity
			Antiviral Activity
			Cytotoxic Activity
			Vasoactive Effects
		2.5.2	 In Vivo Assays
			Anti-Obesity Activity
			Antioxidant Activity
			Anti-inflammatory Activity
			Antidiabetic Activity
			Antidiabetic Neuropathy Activity
			Hepatoprotective Activity
			Anticancer Activity
	2.6	 Clinical Studies (Ongoing, Proposed, and Completed Studies)
		2.6.1	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		2.6.2	 Anticoagulant Activity
		2.6.3	 Anticancer Activity
		2.6.4	 Antihematoma Activity
		2.6.5	 Anti-Infertility Activity
		2.6.6	 Gastroprotective Effect
	2.7	 Toxicological Studies (Dose and Safety Profile, Acute, Chronic, and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad Spectrum Safety, GARS Status)
		2.7.1	 Dose and Safety Profile
			Internal Usage
			External Usage
			Mode of Administration and Dosage
			Side Effects
			Contraindications
			Pregnancy and Lactation
			Warnings
			Drug Interactions and Other Interactions
		2.7.2	 Acute, Chronic, and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad Spectrum Safety
			Acute Toxicity
			Subacute Toxicity
			Chronic Toxicity
			Mutagenicity and Teratogenicity
		2.7.3	 GRAS Status
	2.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies (with Special Focus on Bioavailability and Metabolism of Active Constituents)
		2.8.1	 Commercial Formulations/Products
		2.8.2	 Pharmacokinetic Studies
		2.8.3	 Clinical Safety
	2.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	2.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as a Potential Drug Candidate
	References
3: Berberis crataegina DC.
	3.1	 Introduction
	3.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	3.3	 Traditional/Ethnomedical/Local Uses
	3.4	 Bioactive Composition
		3.4.1	 Phenolics, Organic Acid, and Mineral Components
		3.4.2	 Alkaloid Content of B. crataegina
	3.5	 Pharmacological Activities
		3.5.1	 Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic, and Antipyretic Activities
		3.5.2	 Antioxidant Activity
		3.5.3	 Antimicrobial Activity
		3.5.4	 Use of Diabetes Treatment
	3.6	 Toxicological Studies
		3.6.1	 In Vitro, Genotoxicity, and Cytotoxicity
		3.6.2	 Acute Toxicity
		3.6.3	 Sub-Acute Toxicity
		3.6.4	 Sub-Chronic Toxicity
		3.6.5	 Chronic Toxicity
		3.6.6	 Clinical Toxicity
	3.7	 Pharmacokinetic Studies
	3.8	 Conclusion
	References
4: Calendula officinalis L.
	4.1	 Introduction
	4.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	4.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	4.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
		4.4.1	 Triterpene Saponosides
		4.4.2	 Triterpene Alcohol and Esters
		4.4.3	 Phenolic Components
		4.4.4	 Carotenoids
		4.4.5	 Volatile Components
		4.4.6	 Other Components
	4.5	 Scientific Evidences
		4.5.1	 In Vivo and In Vitro Studies
		4.5.2	 Antimicrobial
		4.5.3	 Antiviral
		4.5.4	 Antioxidant
		4.5.5	 Immunomodulatory
		4.5.6	 Cytotoxic
		4.5.7	 Antitumor
		4.5.8	 Wound Healing
		4.5.9	 Analgesic
		4.5.10	 Anti-inflammatory
		4.5.11	 Hepatoprotective and Renoprotective
		4.5.12	 Antigenotoxic
		4.5.13	 Cytoprotective
	4.6	 Clinical Studies
		4.6.1	 Wound Healing
		4.6.2	 Antioxidant
		4.6.3	 Anticandidal
		4.6.4	 Cosmetic
	4.7	 Toxicological Studies
		4.7.1	 Acute Toxicity
		4.7.2	 Chronic Toxicity
		4.7.3	 Mutagenicity and Teratogenicity
		4.7.4	 Pregnancy Toxicity
		4.7.5	 Reproductive Toxicity
	4.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	4.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	4.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
5: Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze
	5.1	 Introduction
		5.1.1	 Origin, Distribution, and Cultivation
		5.1.2	 Economic Importance
		5.1.3	 Chemical Components
		5.1.4	 Biological Activities
		5.1.5	 Traditional Uses
		5.1.6	 Medicinal Uses
	5.2	 Effect of Camellia sinensis on Reproduction
	5.3	 Conclusion and Recommendation for Future Research
	References
6: Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.
	6.1	 Introduction
	6.2	 Distribution and Status of the Species
	6.3	 Traditional/Ethnomedicinal Uses
	6.4	 Composition
	6.5	 Pharmacological Activities
		6.5.1	 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activity
		6.5.2	 Antibacterial Activity
		6.5.3	 Anticancer Activity
		6.5.4	 Antihemorrhoidal Activity
		6.5.5	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		6.5.6	 Antioxidant Activity
		6.5.7	 Antihemorrhagic Activity
		6.5.8	 Cholesterol-Lowering Activity
		6.5.9	 Hepatoprotective Activity
		6.5.10	 Neuroprotective Activity
		6.5.11	 Sexual Function
		6.5.12	 Other Activities/Usages
	6.6	 Side Effects
	6.7	 Toxicity
	6.8	 Commercial Formulations
		6.8.1	 Commercial Preparations Related to Well-being
		6.8.2	 Cosmetic Preparations
	6.9	 Gap between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	6.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendation
	References
7: Capsicum annuum L.
	7.1	 Introduction
		7.1.1	 Description of Capsicum annuum L.
		7.1.2	 Taxonomical Aspect with Photograph
		7.1.3	 Synonyms
		7.1.4	 Local Names
		7.1.5	 Occurrence/Habitat
		7.1.6	 Importance
		7.1.7	 Objective of This Chapter
	7.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	7.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses: In Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	7.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
	7.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities (All Major Therapeutic Activity with In Vitro and In Vivo Studies and Mechanism of Action)
		7.5.1	 In Vitro Studies
			Antioxidant Activity
			Antibacterial Activity
			Antiviral Activity
			Antiproliferative Activity
			Anti-Adipogenic Activity
			Antimutagenic Activity
			Enzyme Inhibitory Activity
		7.5.2	 In Vivo Studies
			Anti-inflammatory Activity
			Hepatoprotective Activity
			Antidiabetic Activity
			Renoprotective Activity
			Hypocholesterolemic Activity
			Antitumor Activity
			Anti-Obesity Activity
			Analgesic Activity
			Gastric Acid Secretory Activity
	7.6	 Clinical Studies (Ongoing, Proposed, and Completed)
		7.6.1	 Food Craving Activity
		7.6.2	 Anti-Reflux Activity
		7.6.3	 UV-Induced Skin Damage Suppression Activity
		7.6.4	 Anti-Obesity Activity
	7.7	 Toxicological Studies (Dose and Safety Profile; Acute, Chronic, and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad Spectrum Safety; GRAS Status)
		7.7.1	 Dose and Safety Profile
			Internal Usage
			External Usage
			Method of Administration
			Contraindications
			Interactions with Other Medications
			Pregnancy and Lactation
			Works that Required Attention
			Overdose
			Duration of Use
		7.7.2	 Acute, Chronic, and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad Spectrum Safety
			Acute Toxicity
			Chronic Toxicity
			Mutagenicity and Teratogenicity
		7.7.3	 GRAS Status
	7.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies (with Special Focus on Bioavailability and Metabolism of Active Constituents)
		7.8.1	 Commercial Formulations/Products
		7.8.2	 Pharmacokinetic Studies
	7.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	7.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as a Potential Drug Candidate
	References
8: Cedrus libani A. Rich
	8.1	 Introduction
	8.2	 Ethnobotanical Use
	8.3	 Chemical Composition
	8.4	 Pharmacological Activities
	References
9: Chelidonium majus L.
	9.1	 Species (Family)
	9.2	 Synonym(s)
	9.3	 Botanical Description
	9.4	 Part(s) Used
	9.5	 Distribution of Chelidonium majus L.
	9.6	 Local Names
	9.7	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses: In Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	9.8	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
	9.9	 Other Components
	9.10	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities (all Major Therapeutic Activity with In Vitro and In Vivo Studies and Mechanism of Action)
		9.10.1	 Antibacterial Activity
		9.10.2	 Antiviral Activity
	References
10: Cichorium intybus L.
	10.1	 Introduction
	10.2	 Distribution and Status of the Species
	10.3	 Traditional/Ethnomedicinal Uses
	10.4	 Composition
	10.5	 Pharmacological Activities
		10.5.1	 Antidiabetic Activity
		10.5.2	 In Vitro Activity
		10.5.3	 Antibacterial Activity
		10.5.4	 Antiparasitic Activity
		10.5.5	 Anticancer Activity
		10.5.6	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		10.5.7	 Antioxidant Activity
		10.5.8	 Cardiovascular Activity
		10.5.9	 Cholesterol Lowering Activity
		10.5.10	 Endocrine
		10.5.11	 Gastro-Intestinal Activity
		10.5.12	 Hepatoprotective Activity
		10.5.13	 Lung
		10.5.14	 Neuroprotective Activity
		10.5.15	 Sexual Function
		10.5.16	 Anti-Gout Activity
		10.5.17	 Kidney Protective
		10.5.18	 Other Activities/Usages
	10.6	 Side Effects
	10.7	 Toxicity
	10.8	 Commercial Formulations
		10.8.1	 Commercial Preparations Related to Well-being
		10.8.2	 Cosmetic Preparations
	10.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	10.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendation
	References
11: Cistus laurifolius L.
	11.1	 Introduction
		11.1.1	 Distribution
		11.1.2	 Chemical Composition
		11.1.3	 Biological Activities
		11.1.4	 Toxicological Studies
	11.2	 Conclusion
	References
12: Coriandrum sativum L.
	12.1	 Introduction
	12.2	 General Information
	12.3	 Origin and Distribution
	12.4	 Traditional and Ethnomedicinal Uses
	12.5	 Nutritional and Bioactive Composition
		12.5.1	 Essential Oils
		12.5.2	 Lipids
		12.5.3	 Phenolic Compounds
		12.5.4	 Carotenoids
		12.5.5	 Water-Soluble Constituents
	12.6	 Pharmacological Activities
		12.6.1	 Analgesic Activity
		12.6.2	 Anticonvulsant Activity
		12.6.3	 Antidiabetic Activity
		12.6.4	 Antihypertensive Activity
		12.6.5	 Antimicrobial Activity
		12.6.6	 Antioxidant Activity
		12.6.7	 Antiparasitic Activity
		12.6.8	 Anxiolytic Activity
		12.6.9	 Diuretic Activity
		12.6.10	 Hepatoprotective Activity
		12.6.11	 Hypolipidemic Activity
		12.6.12	 Neuroprotective Effect
	12.7	 Clinical Studies
	12.8	 Toxicological Studies
	12.9	 Conclusion
	References
13: Cornus mas L.
	13.1	 Introduction
		13.1.1	 Geographical Distribution and Status
		13.1.2	 Ethnomedicinal and Other Traditional Usages
	13.2	 Chemical Compositions
	13.3	 Pharmacological Activities
		13.3.1	 Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity
		13.3.2	 Anti-diabetic and Anti-obesity Activities
		13.3.3	 Epilepsy
		13.3.4	 Protective Properties
		13.3.5	 Cosmetic Accordance
		13.3.6	 Cytotoxic Activities
	13.4	 Clinical Studies
	13.5	 Toxicity Studies
	13.6	 Available Products
		13.6.1	 Pharmacokinetics
	13.7	 Comparison of Ethnobotanical Data and Scientific Studies
	13.8	 Conclusions
	References
14: Curcuma longa L.
	14.1	 Introduction
		14.1.1	 Botanical Aspects
		14.1.2	 Local Names
		14.1.3	 Used Parts
	14.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	14.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses: In Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	14.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
	14.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities
		14.5.1	 Antiinflammatory Activity
		14.5.2	 Anticancer Activity
		14.5.3	 Activity Against Peptic Ulcer and Reflux Esophagitis
		14.5.4	 Choleretic Effect
		14.5.5	 Hepatoprotective Effect
		14.5.6	 Antidepressant Effect
		14.5.7	 Antifungal, Antibacterial, Antiviral Effect
		14.5.8	 Anthelmintic Activity
		14.5.9	 Antioxidant Activity
		14.5.10	 Cardiovascular Diseases
		14.5.11	 Diabetes
		14.5.12	 Neurodegenerative Diseases
	14.6	 Clinical Studies
		14.6.1	 Antiinflammatory Activity
		14.6.2	 Effects on Gallbladder
		14.6.3	 Anticancer Effect
		14.6.4	 Antidiabetic Activity
		14.6.5	 Cardiovascular Diseases
		14.6.6	 Ulcerative Colitis
		14.6.7	 Dermatological Disorders
	14.7	 Toxicological Studies
		14.7.1	 Single-Dose Toxicity
		14.7.2	 Repeat Dose Toxicity
		14.7.3	 Genotoxicity
		14.7.4	 Reproductive and Development Toxicity
	14.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	14.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	14.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
15: Cydonia oblonga Mill.
	15.1	 Introduction
		15.1.1	 Description of Cydonia oblonga Mill.
		15.1.2	 Taxonomical Aspect with Photograph
		15.1.3	 Synonyms
		15.1.4	 Local Names
		15.1.5	 Occurrence/Habitat
		15.1.6	 Importance
		15.1.7	 Objective of This Chapter
	15.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	15.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses: In Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	15.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
	15.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities (All Major Therapeutic Activity with In Vitro and In Vivo Studies, Mechanism of Action)
		15.5.1	 In Vitro Studies
			Antiproliferative Activity
			Proliferative Activity
			Antioxidant Activity
			Antimicrobial Activity
			Anti-inflammatory Activity
			Antihaemolytic Activity
		15.5.2	 In Vivo Studies
			Antidepressant Activity
			Antioxidant Activity
			Wound Healing Activity
			Effect on UV Damage
			Antihyperlipidaemic Activity
			Antihypertensive Activity
			Antihyperglycaemic Activity
			Effect on Male Sexual Dysfunction
			Antithrombotic Activity
			Nootropic Activity
			Effect on Ulcerative Colitis
			Antiulcer Activity
			Antiatheresclerotic Activity
	15.6	 Clinical Studies (Ongoing, Proposed and Completed Studies)
		15.6.1	 Effect on Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
		15.6.2	 Effect on Menstrual Bleeding
		15.6.3	 Effect on Nausea and Vomiting
	15.7	 Toxicological Studies (Dose and Safety Profile, Acute, Chronic and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad-Spectrum Safety, GRAS Status)
		15.7.1	 Dose and Safety Profile
			Internal Usage
			External Usage
			Method of Administration
			Contraindications
			Interactions with Other Medications
			Pregnancy and Lactation
			Works Required Attention
			Overdose
			Duration of Use
		15.7.2	 Acute, Chronic and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad-Spectrum Safety
			Acute Toxicity
			Chronic Toxicity
			Mutagenicity and Teratogenicity
		15.7.3	 GRAS Status
	15.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods and Pharmacokinetic Studies (with Special Focus on Bioavailability and Metabolism of Active Constituents)
	15.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	15.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
16: Cynara scolymus L.
	16.1	 Introductions
	16.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	16.3	 Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses: In Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	16.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
	16.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities (All Major Therapeutic Activity with In Vitro and In Vivo Studies, Mechanism of Action)
		16.5.1	 Antioxidant Activity
		16.5.2	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		16.5.3	 Antimicrobial Activity
		16.5.4	 Antiparasitic Activity
		16.5.5	 Anti-Acetylcholinesterase (Anti-AChE) Activity
		16.5.6	 Effects on Lipid and Carbohydrate Metabolism
		16.5.7	 Prebiotic Effects
		16.5.8	 Protective Effects
		16.5.9	 Anticancer Effects
		16.5.10	 Antiaging Effects
		16.5.11	 Antispasmodic Activity
		16.5.12	 Xanthin Oxidase Inhibitory Activity
		16.5.13	 Effects on Cardiac Muscle
	16.6	 Clinical Studies
	16.7	 Toxicological Studies
	16.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies (with Special Focus on Bioavailability and Metabolism of Active Constituents)
	16.9	 Gap between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	16.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
17: Equisetum arvense L.
	17.1	 Introduction
	17.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	17.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	17.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
	17.5	 Scientific Evidences
		17.5.1	 Antioxidant Effect
		17.5.2	 Anticancer Effect
		17.5.3	 Antimicrobial Effect
		17.5.4	 Activity on Smooth Muscles
		17.5.5	 Central Nervous Effect
		17.5.6	 Dermatological Effects
		17.5.7	 Antidiabetic Effect
		17.5.8	 Anti-inflammatory and Antinociceptive Effects
		17.5.9	 Effects on Urinary System
		17.5.10	 Inhibition of Platelet Aggregation
		17.5.11	 Hepatoprotective Effect
		17.5.12	 Anti-leishmanial Effects
		17.5.13	 Effect on Bones
		17.5.14	 Effect on RBC Membrane Stability
		17.5.15	 Hyaluronidase Inhibitory Activity
	17.6	 Clinical Studies
	17.7	 Toxicological Studies
	17.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	17.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	17.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
18: Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
	18.1	 Introduction
		18.1.1	 Botanical Description
	18.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	18.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses in Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	18.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
		18.4.1	 Essential Oil
		18.4.2	 Phenolic Compounds
		18.4.3	 Other Compounds
		18.4.4	 Nutritional Composition
		18.4.5	 Extraction Techniques
	18.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities
		18.5.1	 In Vitro Studies
			Larvicidal Activity
			Acaricidal Activity
			Antiosteoporotic Activity
			Anti-hyaluronidase Activity
			Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity
			Antioxidant Activity
			Antiplatelet Activity
			Antitumour Activity
			Insect Repellent Activity
			Anaesthetic Activity
			Secretolytic and Expectorant Activity
			Effect on the Muscular System
		18.5.2	 In Vivo Studies
			Effect on the Nervous System
			Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity
			Antidiabetic Activity
			Antigenotoxic Activity
			Antioxidant Activity
			Antiosteoporotic Activity
			Antitumour Activity
			Effect on the Liver
			Estrogenic Effect
			Effect on the Digestive System
			Other Effects
	18.6	 Clinical Studies
		18.6.1	 Effect on the Nervous System
		18.6.2	 Insect Repellent Effect
		18.6.3	 Estrogenic Effect
		18.6.4	 Effect on the Digestive System
	18.7	 Toxicological Studies
		18.7.1	 Acute Toxicity
		18.7.2	 Subchronic Toxicity
		18.7.3	 Reproductive Toxicity
		18.7.4	 Mutagenicity, Carcinogenicity, and Teratogenicity
		18.7.5	 GARS Status
	18.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	18.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	18.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
19: Fraxiınus ornus L.
	19.1	 Introduction
		19.1.1	 Distribution
		19.1.2	 Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	19.2	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition
		19.2.1	 Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition
		19.2.2	 Extraction
	19.3	 Pharmacological Activities
		19.3.1	 Antioxidant Activity
		19.3.2	 Antimicrobial Activity
		19.3.3	 Antiviral Activity
		19.3.4	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		19.3.5	 Skin-Regenerating Activity
		19.3.6	 Anticoccidial Activity
		19.3.7	 Hypoglycemic Activity
	19.4	 Clinical and Toxicological Studies
		19.4.1	 Clinical Study
		19.4.2	 Toxicological Study
	19.5	 Available Commercial Products
	19.6	 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
20: Fumaria officinalis L.
	20.1	 Introduction
	20.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	20.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	20.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
	20.5	 Scientific Evidences
	20.6	 Clinical Studies
	20.7	 Toxicological Studies
	20.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	20.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	20.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
21: Helichrysum plicatum DC.
	21.1	 Introduction
	21.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	21.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	21.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
	21.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities
		21.5.1	 Antioxidant Activity
		21.5.2	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		21.5.3	 Antiurolithiatic Activity
		21.5.4	 Insecticidal Activity
		21.5.5	 Central Nervous System Activity
		21.5.6	 Anticancer Activity
		21.5.7	 Antidiabetic Activity
		21.5.8	 Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity
		21.5.9	 Protective of Liver and Kidney
		21.5.10	 Other Activities
	21.6	 Clinical Studies
	21.7	 Toxicological Studies
	21.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	21.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	21.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
22: Hyoscyamus niger L.
	22.1	 Introduction
	22.2	 Origin, Distribution, and Local Names
	22.3	 Ethnobotanical Uses
	22.4	 Phytochemistry
	22.5	 Biological Activities
	22.6	 Toxic Effects
	References
23: Juglans regia L.
	23.1	 Introduction
	23.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	23.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses: In Turkey and throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	23.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
	23.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities
		23.5.1	 Antioxidant Activity
		23.5.2	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		23.5.3	 Cardiovascular Activity
		23.5.4	 Central Nervous System Activity
		23.5.5	 Anticancer Activity
		23.5.6	 Antidiabetic Activity
		23.5.7	 Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity
		23.5.8	 Protective of Liver and Kidney
		23.5.9	 Other Activities
	23.6	 Clinical Studies
		23.6.1	 Cardiovascular Activity
		23.6.2	 Antidiabetic Activity
	23.7	 Toxicological Studies
	23.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	23.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidence
	23.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
24: Laurus nobilis L.
	24.1	 Introduction
	24.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	24.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	24.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
		24.4.1	 Essential Oil
		24.4.2	 Fixed Oils
		24.4.3	 Sesquiterpenoids
		24.4.4	 Norisoprenoids
		24.4.5	 Tocopherols
		24.4.6	 Flavonoids
		24.4.7	 Proanthocyanidins
		24.4.8	 Other Phenolic Compounds
		24.4.9	 Others
	24.5	 Scientific Evidences
		24.5.1	 In vitro Studies
			Antimicrobial
			Antiviral
			Antidiabetic
			Antioxidant Activity
			Antiproliferative
			Antinociceptive and Anti-inflammatory
			Anticholinergic Activity
			Insecticidal
			Antiprotozoal
			Cytotoxic
			Neuroprotective Effect
			Other Activities
		24.5.2	 In vivo Studies
			Anticonvulsant
			Antidiabetic
			Antidiarrheal
			Antioxidant
			Antiprotozoal
			Gastroprotective
			Hepatoprotective
			Wound Healing
			Neuroprotective
			Other Activities
	24.6	 Clinical Studies
	24.7	 Toxicological Studies
	24.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	24.9	Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	24.10	Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
25: Liquidambar orientalis Miller
	25.1	 Introduction
	25.2	 Origin and Distribution
	25.3	 Botanical Properties
	25.4	 Uses
	25.5	 Chemistry
		25.5.1	 Compounds
		25.5.2	 Phenolic Components
	25.6	 Pharmacological Uses
		25.6.1	 Antimicrobial Effects
		25.6.2	 Antioxidant Capacity
		25.6.3	 Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity, and Mutagenicity
		25.6.4	 In Vivo Experiments
		25.6.5	 Anti-Methanogenic Potential
		25.6.6	 Molecular Studies
	25.7	 Toxicity Studies
		25.7.1	 Contact Toxicity
		25.7.2	 Fumigant Toxicity
		25.7.3	 Hepatotoxicity
	25.8	 Precautions and Adverse Reactions
		25.8.1	 Overdosage
		25.8.2	 Dosages
	25.9	 Challenges and Future Recommendation as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
26: Matricaria chamomilla L.
	26.1	 Introduction
		26.1.1	 Description of Matricaria chamomilla L.
		26.1.2	 Taxonomical Aspect with Photograph
		26.1.3	 Synonyms
		26.1.4	 Local Names
		26.1.5	 Occurrence/Habitat
		26.1.6	 Importance
		26.1.7	 Objective of This Chapter
	26.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	26.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses in Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	26.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
	26.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities (All Major Therapeutic Activities with In Vitro and In Vivo Studies, Mechanism of Action)
		26.5.1	 In Vitro Studies
			Anti-inflammatory Activity
			Antimicrobial Activity
			Antioxidant Activity
			Antispasmodic Activity
			Chemopreventive Activity
			Enzyme İnhibitory Activity
			Antiparasidic Activity
		26.5.2	 In Vivo Studies
			Anti-inflammatory Activity
			Chemopreventive Activity
			Neuroprotective Activity
			Antiulcer Activity
			Antipruritic Activity
			Sedative Activity
			Nephroprotective Activity
			Antidiarrheal and Antioxidant Activity
			Wound Healing Activity
			Immunomodulating Activity
		26.5.3	 Ex Vivo Studies
			Antispasmodic Activity
	26.6	 Clinical Studies (Ongoing, Proposed, and Completed Studies)
		26.6.1	 Anxiolytic Effect
		26.6.2	 The Effect on Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
		26.6.3	 The Platelets Activity
		26.6.4	 Effect on Knee Osteoarthritis
		26.6.5	 Effect on Migraine
		26.6.6	 Effect on Breast Pain (Mastalgia)
		26.6.7	 Effect on Minor Aphthous Stomatitis
	26.7	 Toxicological Studies (Dose and Safety Profile, Acute, Chronic, and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad Spectrum Safety, GARS Status)
		26.7.1	 Dose and Safety Profile
			Internal Usage
			External Usage
			Method of Administration
			Contraindications
			Interactions with Other Medications
			Pregnancy and Lactation
			Works Required Attention
			Overdose
			Duration of Use
		26.7.2	 Acute, Chronic, and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad Spectrum Safety
			Acute Toxicity
			Chronic Toxicity
			Mutagenicity and Teratogenicity
		26.7.3	 GRAS Status
	26.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies (with Special Focus on Bioavailability and Metabolism of Active Constituents)
		26.8.1	 Commercial Formulations/Products
		26.8.2	 Pharmacokinetic Studies
	26.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	26.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
27: Melissa officinalis L.
	27.1	 Introduction
		27.1.1	 Description of Melissa officinalis L.
		27.1.2	 Taxonomical Aspect with Photograph
		27.1.3	 Synonyms
		27.1.4	 Local Names
		27.1.5	 Occurrence/Habitat
		27.1.6	 Registered Pharmacopoeias and Monographs
		27.1.7	 Importance
		27.1.8	 Objective of This Chapter
	27.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	27.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses in Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	27.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
		27.4.1	 Volatile Compounds
		27.4.2	 Triterpenes
		27.4.3	 Phenolic Compounds
			Phenolic Acids
			Flavonoids
		27.4.4	 Other Compounds
	27.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities (All Major Therapeutic Activity with In Vitro and In Vivo Studies, Mechanism of Action)
		27.5.1	 Antiviral Effect
			In Vitro Experiments
		27.5.2	 Antimicrobial Effect
			In Vitro Experiments
		27.5.3	 Antispazmodic Effect
			In Vitro Experiments
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.4	 Antioxidant Capacity
			In Vitro Experiments
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.5	 Cytotoxic and Antiproliferative Effect
			In Vitro Experiments
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.6	 Enzyme Inhibition Effect
			In Vitro Experiment
		27.5.7	 Genotoxic Effect
			In Vitro Experiments
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.8	 Sedative Effect
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.9	 Antidepressant Effect
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.10	 Anxiolytic Effect
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.11	 Antiulcer Effect
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.12	 Anti-inflammatory Effect
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.13	 Antinociceptive Effect
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.14	 Hypolipidemic Effect
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.15	 Antidiabetic Effect
			In Vivo Experiments
		27.5.16	 Effect of Cardiovascular System
		27.5.17	 Neuroprotective Effect
	27.6	 Clinical Studies (Ongoing, Proposed, and Completed Studies)
		27.6.1	 Effect on Cognitive Performance and Attention Increase
		27.6.2	 Effect on Alzheimer Disease
		27.6.3	 Sedative Effect
		27.6.4	 Antispazmodic Effect
		27.6.5	 Antiviral Effect
		27.6.6	 Analgesic Effect
		27.6.7	 Effect on Cardiovascular System and Diabetes
		27.6.8	 Effect on Anxiety and Insomnia
	27.7	 Toxicological Studies (Dose and Safety Profile, Acute, Chronic, and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad Spectrum Safety, GARS Status)
		27.7.1	 Dose and Safety Profile
			Internal Usage
				Adults
			External Usage
				Adults
			Method of Administration
			Contraindications
			Interactions with Other Medications
			Pregnancy and Lactation
			Works Required Attention
			Overdose
			Duration of Use
		27.7.2	 Acute, Chronic, and Mutagenicity Studies to Demonstrate Broad Spectrum Safety
			Acute Toxicity
			Chronic Toxicity
			Mutagenicity and Teratogenicity
		27.7.3	 GRAS Status
	27.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies (with Special Focus on Bioavailability and Metabolism of Active Constituents)
		27.8.1	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Method
		27.8.2	 Pharmacokinetic Studies
	27.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	27.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
28: Momordica charantia L.
	28.1	 Introduction
	28.2	 Bioactive and Nutritional Composition of Momordica charantia, Existing Extraction Techniques, and Biological Applications of These Components
		28.2.1	 Phenolic Compounds and Flavonoids
		28.2.2	 Saponins and Terpenoids
		28.2.3	 Proteins and Peptides
		28.2.4	 Polysaccharides
		28.2.5	 Other Components
	28.3	 Preclinical Pharmacological Activities of Momordica charantia
		28.3.1	 Antidiabetes Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.2	 Antiobesity Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.3	 Antidyslipidemia Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.4	 Anticancer Effects of Bitter Melon
			Breast Cancer
			Ovarian Cancer
			Prostate Cancer
			Liver Cancer
			Pancreatic Cancer
			Gastric Cancer
			Head and Neck Carcinoma (Oral Cancer)
			Lung Cancer
			Leukemia
		28.3.5	 Anti-inflammatory Effects of Bitter Melon
			Colitis
			Inflammatory Bowel Disease
			Macrophages Inflammation
			Pulmonary Epithelial Cells Inflammation
			Sepsis
		28.3.6	 Antimicrobial Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.7	 Antimalarial Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.8	 Neuroprotective Effects of Bitter Melon
			Alzheimer’s Disease and Memory Deficits
			Neuroinflammation
			Anxiety and Depression
			Cerebral Ischemia
		28.3.9	 Hepatoprotective Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.10	 Renoprotective Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.11	 Reproductive Health Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.12	 Antiulcer Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.13	 Wound-Healing Effects of Bitter Melon
		28.3.14	 Miscellaneous Effects of Bitter Melon
	28.4	 Clinical Studies
	28.5	 Safety, Toxicity, and Drug Interactions of Momordica charantia
	28.6	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products and Pharmacokinetics Studies
	28.7	 Conclusion and Future Direction
	References
29: Nigella sativa L.
	29.1	 Introduction
	29.2	 Systematic Position
	29.3	 Common Names (English)
	29.4	 Local Names
	29.5	 Etymology
	29.6	 Botanical Description of N. sativa L.
	29.7	 Distribution and Status of N. sativa L.
	29.8	 Comparison of Traditional Uses of N. sativa L. in Turkey and Throughout the World
	29.9	 Bioactive and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques of N. sativa L.
		29.9.1	 Lipids and Sterols
		29.9.2	 Aromatic Compounds
		29.9.3	 Saponosides
		29.9.4	 Polyphenols and Flavonoids
		29.9.5	 Alkaloids
		29.9.6	 Proteins
		29.9.7	 Vitamins and Minerals
	29.10	 Pharmacological Properties of N. sativa L.
		29.10.1	 Antioxidant Properties
			In Vitro Studies
			In Vivo Studies
		29.10.2	 Antihistaminic Properties
		29.10.3	 Anti-inflammatory Properties
			In Vitro Studies
			In Vivo Studies
		29.10.4	 Immunomodulatory Properties
		29.10.5	 Anti-infectious Properties
			Antimicrobial Properties
			Antifungal Properties
			Antiviral Properties
			Anti-parasitic Properties
			Antidiabetic Properties
		29.10.6	 Cardiovascular Properties
			Direct Anti-hypertensive Action
			Action on Hyperlipidaemia and Atherosclerosis
		29.10.7	 Gastrointestinal Properties
		29.10.8	 Antihepatotoxic, Hepatoprotective, and Antinephrotoxic Properties
			Hepatoprotective Action
			Nephroprotective Activity
		29.10.9	 Neurological Properties
			Antinociceptive Properties
			Neuroprotective Properties
			Anticonvulsant and Sedative Properties
			Anxiolytic Properties
		29.10.10	 Properties on Reproductive and Fertility Functions
			Actions on Spermatogenesis
			Galactogenic Properties
			Estrogenic Properties
			Contraceptive Properties
		29.10.11	 Antitumour Properties
		29.10.12	 Anti-angiogenic Properties
	29.11	 Toxicological Studies of N. sativa L.
	29.12	 Available Commercial Formulations of N. sativa L.
	29.13	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific Evidences
		29.13.1	 Diabetes Mellitus
		29.13.2	 Allergy, Hay Fever, Asthma
		29.13.3	 Common Cold
		29.13.4	 Bronchitis, Cough
		29.13.5	 Acne
		29.13.6	 Headache
		29.13.7	 Insomnia, Gastric Acidity
	29.14	 Considerations for Using N. sativa Preparations
		29.14.1	 Drug Interaction and Other Interactions
		29.14.2	 Warnings and Adverse Reactions
		29.14.3	 Pregnancy and Lactation
		29.14.4	 Duration of Use
		29.14.5	 Overdose
		29.14.6	 Storage
	29.15	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
30: Olea europaea L.
	30.1	 Introduction
	30.2	 Distribution
	30.3	 Traditional Uses
	30.4	 Phytochemicals
		30.4.1	 Fruit
		30.4.2	 Olive Oil
		30.4.3	 Leaves
		30.4.4	 Stem
		30.4.5	 Bark
	30.5	 Pharmacological Activities
	30.6	 Clinical Research
	30.7	 Toxicity
	30.8	 Commercial Products
	30.9	 Conclusion
	References
31: Papaver somniferum L.
	31.1	 Introduction (Occurrence/Habitat, Importance, Objective of This Chapter)
		31.1.1	 Vernaculars
		31.1.2	 Taxonomical Classification
	31.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	31.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses: In Turkey and Throughout the World
	31.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
		31.4.1	 Opium
		31.4.2	 Seed and Seed Oil
	31.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities
		31.5.1	 Analgesic Effect
		31.5.2	 Antitussive Effect
		31.5.3	 Antispasmodic Effect
		31.5.4	 Anticancer Effect
		31.5.5	 Antimicrobial Effect
	31.6	 Clinical Studies
	31.7	 Toxicological Studies
	31.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	31.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	31.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
32: Rheum ribes L.
	32.1	 Introduction
	32.2	 Distribution and Status of the Species
	32.3	 Traditional/Ethnomedicinal Uses
	32.4	 Composition
	32.5	 Pharmacological Activities
		32.5.1	 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activity
		32.5.2	 Antibacterial Activity
		32.5.3	 Anticancer Activity
		32.5.4	 Anti-diabetic Activity
		32.5.5	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		32.5.6	 Antioxidant Activity
		32.5.7	 Antiparasitic Activity
		32.5.8	 Antiviral Activity
		32.5.9	 Dermatological Usage
		32.5.10	 Hepatoprotective Activity
		32.5.11	 Obesity
		32.5.12	 Renoprotective Activity
		32.5.13	 Other Activities/Usages
	32.6	 Side Effects
	32.7	 Toxicity
	32.8	 Commercial Formulations
		32.8.1	 Commercial Preparations Related to Well-Being
		32.8.2	 Cosmetic Preparations
	32.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	32.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendation
	References
33: Rosa canina L.
	33.1	 Introduction
	33.2	 Origin and Distribution
	33.3	 Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	33.4	 Bioactive Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition
	33.5	 Pharmacological Activities
	33.6	 Clinical Studies
	33.7	 Toxicity and Side Effects
	33.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	33.9	 Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	33.10	 Potential Drug Candidate
	References
34: Rosmarinus officinalis L.
	34.1	 Introduction
	34.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	34.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/ Local Uses
	34.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
		34.4.1	 Volatile Compounds
		34.4.2	 Nonvolatile Compounds
	34.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities
		34.5.1	 Antitumor Activity
		34.5.2	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		34.5.3	 Antihyperglicemic Activity
		34.5.4	 Antithrombotic Activity
		34.5.5	 Antioxidant Activity
	34.6	 Clinical Studies
	34.7	 Toxicological Studies
		34.7.1	 Dose and Safety Profile
		34.7.2	 Single Dose (Acute) Toxicity
		34.7.3	 Repeated Dose Toxicity
		34.7.4	 Mutagenicity
		34.7.5	 GRAS
	34.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	34.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	34.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
35: Silybum marianum L. Gaertn.
	35.1	 Introduction
	35.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	35.3	 Comparison of Traditional/ Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses in Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	35.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques
	35.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities
	35.6	 Clinical Trials
	35.7	 Toxicological Studies
	35.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	35.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	35.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
36: Urtica dioica L.
	36.1	 Introduction
	36.2	 Distribution of Urtica dioica L.
	36.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses
	36.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition
	36.5	 Scientific Evidences
		36.5.1	 In Vitro Studies
			Antioxidant
			Antimicrobial
			Antiviral
		36.5.2	 In Vivo Studies
			Antioxidant
			Antidiabetic
			Anticancer
			Hypotensive
			Others
	36.6	 Clinical Studies
	36.7	 Toxicological Studies
	36.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods, and Pharmacokinetic Studies
	36.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	36.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
37: Valeriana officinalis L.
	37.1	 Introduction
	37.2	 Botanical properties
	37.3	 Habitat
	37.4	 Medicinal Parts
	37.5	 Traditional Uses
	37.6	 Chemical Constituent
	37.7	 Pharmacological Activities
		37.7.1	 Anxiolytic and Antidepressant
		37.7.2	 Anticonvulsant Effect
		37.7.3	 Myorelaxant Effects
		37.7.4	 Tension-Type Headache
		37.7.5	 Cardiovascular System Diseases
		37.7.6	 Gastrointestinal Activity
		37.7.7	 Insomnia Treatment
	37.8	 Toxicity
		37.8.1	 Acute Toxicity
		37.8.2	 Chronic Toxicity
	37.9	 Adverse Reactions
	37.10	 Drug Interactions
	37.11	 Use in Pregnancy and Lactation
	References
38: Viburnum opulus L.
	38.1	 Introduction
	38.2	 Distribution and Status of Species
	38.3	 Comparison of Traditional/Ethnomedicinal/Local Uses in Turkey and Throughout the World (Asia and Europe)
	38.4	 Bioactive/Nutraceutical and Nutritional Composition and Available Extraction Techniques (Classification and Structures of Few Representatives)
	38.5	 Scientific Evidences: Pharmacological Activities (All Major Therapeutic Activity with In Vitro and In Vivo Studies, Mechanism of Action)
		38.5.1	 Antioxidant Activity
		38.5.2	 Antimicrobial Activity
		38.5.3	 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		38.5.4	 Cytotoxic Effects
		38.5.5	 Effects on Lipid and Carbohydrate Metabolism
		38.5.6	 Effects on Gynecological Disorder
		38.5.7	 Effects on Urinary System Disorders
		38.5.8	 Effects on Osteoporosis
		38.5.9	 Effects on Blood Vessels
		38.5.10	 Protective Effects
	38.6	 Clinical Studies
	38.7	 Toxicity
	38.8	 Available Commercial Formulations/Products, Uses, Administration Methods and Pharmacokinetic Studies (with Special Focus on Bioavailability and Metabolism of Active Constituents)
	38.9	 Gap Between Ethnomedicinal and Scientific/Clinical Evidences
	38.10	 Challenges and Future Recommendations as Potential Drug Candidate
	References
Index